1. 1-6: Ratification and Amendment of the Constitution

2. Ratification Debate Anti-Federalists
Small farmers, laborers, shopkeepers
Strong state governments
Viewed the Constitution as class-based
Demanded a bill of rights
Brutus No. 1
adhered to broad participatory democracy
Benefits of small decentralized republic
Large, centralized government would endanger personal liberty
The Articles of Confederation could be amended only by the agreement of all 13 state legislatures. In contrast, the Framers required that conventions in only 9 of the 13 states would be needed to approve the Constitution. Ratification sparked a nationwide debate between Anti-Federalists who opposed the Constitution and Federalists who supported it.

3. Ratification Debate Federalists
Large landowners, wealthy merchants, professionals
Strong national government
Federalist Papers
A large republic such as the U.S. would fragment political power
Federalist No. 51: delegating authority to elected representatives and dispersing power between states and national government in a large republic would control the “mischiefs of faction”
The Federalist Papers were a series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in support of the Constitution.

4. Ratification
After the Bill of Rights was added, enough states ratified the Constitution and the Union was formed
Bill of Rights
Written guarantees of protections from government
Unlisted powers belong to states
Although Delaware, New Jersey, and other small states promptly ratified the Constitution, the contest proved to be very close in Virginia and New York. North Carolina and Rhode Island insisted on a bill of rights as a condition for joining the Union.

5. Constitutional Change
Formal Process
Illustrates federalism
Sharing of power between state and national governments
Informal Process
Legislation
Executive actions
Judicial decisions
Party practices
Unwritten traditions
Congress has passed a number of laws that both clarified and expanded constitutional provisions. The Judiciary Act of 1789 began the process of creating the federal court system we have today. Acts of Congress created the cabinet departments, agencies, and offices of the executive branch. Congress has also passed a number of laws that have defined and expanded the Commerce Clause. For example, congressional regulations now cover railroad lines, air routes, and internet traffic.
Presidents have used their power as commander-in-chief of the armed forces to send troops into combat without a declaration of war. An executive agreement is a pact made by the President with the head of a foreign state. Unlike treaties, executive agreements do not have to be signed by the Senate.
Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to determine if acts of Congress and the President are in accord with the Constitution.
Political parties are not mentioned in the Constitution. In fact, the framers warned of what George Washington called “the baneful effects of the spirit of party.” Political parties now determine how congressional committees are organized and led.
The unwritten tradition of senatorial courtesy requires the President to first seek the approval of the senators of the President’s party from the state in which a nominee will serve.