1. Modules 4-7 – Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science
AKA – Methods and Statistics
Pages

2. Three Primary Research Strategies
I. Observations –
Describe behavior
II. Correlations –
Predict behavior
III. Experiments –
Explain behavior

3. Observational Research
1. Case Study – Researcher collects lengthy, detailed information about a person’s background
Advantages: Provides a great deal of knowledge, helps to try to explain behavior
Disadvantages: Anecdotal cases of contradictory data, dishonesty, researcher bias
Ex. Serial Killer Studies

4. 2. Cross Sectional and Longitudinal
Cross Sectional Study – Studies different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the lifespan
Longitudinal Study – The same group is followed over an extended period of time – can be time consuming and expensive
Ex. Changes in work ethic over time
Hoop Dreams or Boyhood

5. 3. Naturalistic Observation -
Watching and recording the behavior of subjects in their natural environment
Advantages: Subjects may not know if they are actually being studied
Ex. Helping an elderly woman
Disadvantages: Researchers can’t ask any questions – may be inaccurate in their interpretations
Hawthorne Effect

6. Advantages: Researchers can obtain detailed, personal information
4. Interviews
Advantages: Researchers can obtain detailed, personal information
Disadvantages: Subject may not be honest
Ex. What kind of TV shows do you watch?
Ex. Japanese riddle/puzzle game

7. 5. Psychological Testing -
Advantages: Leaves no room for bias – Answers are either right or wrong
Ex. Police Officer Test
Disadvantages: Can’t test for the way a person would react in a given situation

8. 6. Survey Method -
Ask questions about feelings, opinions or behavior patterns to a selected group of people
Advantages: Can be very accurate if done correctly
Disadvantages: May not be objective, may not representative of the population

9. II. Correlational Research
Correlation – A method used to analyze and interpret data gathered through observation.
Correlation is a measure of how closely one thing is related to another.
Correlation Coefficient – measure of strength of relationship ranging from -1 to +1
Ex. Relationship between stress and health, grades earned and extracurricular activities

10. Positive vs. Negative Correlation
Positive Correlation – Direct relationship – Two things either increase or decrease together
Ex. Violence viewed on TV and aggressive behavior
1:00
Negative Correlation – Inverse relationship – As one increases the other decreases
Ex. Tooth brushing and tooth decay

11. AP PREP – KEY IDEA
Correlation IS NOT Causation
Correlation enables prediction, but does not reveal the cause of something
Ex. Do black sports uniforms impact perceptions?

12. Correlational Coefficient
Strong Some Weak Rel. Some Strong

13. Illusory Correlations -
The perception of a relationship where none exists. When we have previously set beliefs, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm those beliefs
Ex. Getting cold and wet leads to…
Ex. Wearing lucky socks as an athlete
We can deceive ourselves by seeing things that are not there if we mistake a random coincidence for a correlation

14. III. Experimental Research
Experiment – A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Experiments can reveal cause and effect

15. Sample Experiment
One of the earliest studies conducted was to assess whether or not the moon influences our behavior.
The study compared mental hospital admissions to the phases of the moon.

16. Hypothesis A statement of the results that the experimenter expects.
Previous Example – Researcher expected an increase in admissions when there was a full moon

17. Subjects People or animals being tested
Ex. People being admitted to the hospital

18. Items in experiment that are subject to change
Variables
Items in experiment that are subject to change
Ex. Phases of the moon and mental hospital admissions

19. Independent vs. Dependent
Independent – Factors that are changed or manipulated by the researcher
Dependent – Factor that will change as a result of the changes in the independent variable
What are the Independent and Dependent variables in the lunacy experiment?

20. Independent vs. Dependent
Hypothesis: Students score higher on SAT’s in the morning than afternoon
Hypothesis: People who wear uniforms will receive greater respect than those that don’t
Hypothesis: Strict parents raise children that rarely get in trouble
Hypothesis: People tend to jog faster when others are watching
Hypothesis: The way a ball is thrown will affect whether or not it is caught
Ex. Stanley Milgram Obedience StudyHandout

21. Confounding Variables
Also referred to as “Hidden” or “Extraneous” variables
Unexpected variables that may impact the results of an experiment
Clever Hans
Hindsight Bias – the “I knew it all along” phenomenon. Hindsight is 20/20

22. Placebo & Placebo Effect
Placebo – “Fake” medicine administered during a study
Placebo Effect – Experimental results caused by expectations alone – any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which is assumed to be an active agent
On average, 50% of pain is cured by the power of suggestion

23. Placebo Effect cont’d Ex. O’Douls Any examples of your own?
Saved
Any examples of your own?

24. Single vs. Double-Blind Studies
Single-Blind Study – A study in which only the researcher is aware of who is getting the placebo
Double-Blind Study – A study in which both the researcher and participants are “blind” about the treatment and the placebo – commonly used in drug evaluation studies

25. Experimental vs. Control Groups
Experimental Group – Individuals that receive the treatment
Control Group – Do Not receive the treatment
Every effort is made by the researchers to ensure that all other conditions are held constant for both groups…Why?

26. Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance – the effect is to minimize any pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups
***Minimizes confounding variables
***DO NOT CONFUSE WITH RANDOM SAMPLE
Again, Stanley Milgram Obedience Study

27. Please see handouts and homework!
Statistics
Please see handouts and homework!
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