1. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Chapter 1
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2. The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
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3. Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only knew the Miami Heat would lose to the Spurs in 5 games after it happened.
OBJECTIVE 1| Describe hindsight bias and explain how it can make research findings seem like mere common sense.
“Anything seems commonplace, once explained.” Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes.
Two phenomena – hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence – illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense.
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4. Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
Anagram
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments.
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
GRABE
BARGE
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5. Psychological Science
How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!

6. Lets test your overconfidence.
Which are TRUE and which are FALSE?
Humans Have Five Senses.
Mount Everest Is The Tallest Mountain in the World.
Body Heat Dissipates Mainly Through the Head.
Mother Birds Will Abandon Babies if You Touch Them.
Different Parts of Your Tongue Detect Different Tastes.

7. Mount Everest Is The Tallest Mountain in the World.
FALSE!
Mauna Kea (in Hawaii) is only 13,799 feet (4,206 meters). But when you count the crazy enormous portion of it that's underwater, it's 33,465 feet tall (10,200 meters). Everest, that snobby little upstart, is only 29,029 feet (8,848 meters) above sea level, with none of it below sea level.

8. Body Heat Dissipates Mainly Through the Head.
FALSE!
the sad truth is, you lose just as much heat per square inch through your head as you do through the rest of the body,

9. Mother Birds Will Abandon Babies if You Touch Them.
FALSE!
As for the scent issue – birds just don't smell too well. A few species are an exception, but chances are vastly greater that the little chirping ball of fluff won't suffer if you need to move it to the other side of the fence from where your dog plays. Plus, its parents have invested way too much time and energy raising it to just scoot off at the first opportunity, no matter how the little guy smells.

10. Different Parts of Your Tongue Detect Different Tastes.
FALSE!
we've found out that the whole zones theory was pretty much bologna. It turns out people can sense different tastes all over their tongues. There are a few outliers, but for most people, them's the facts.

11. Humans Have Five Senses.
FALSE!
Depending on how you want to count it, there are between 14 and 20 different senses listed here.

12. Overconfident still?
Now that the world is no longer the nice predictable sphere you once thought it was…let us move forward!

13. The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking.
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14. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.
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15. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
Theory
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
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16. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

17. Research Process

18. Is language uniquely human?
Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
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19. Case Study Clinical Study
A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.

20. Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
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21. Wording can change the results of a survey.
Wording Effect
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

22. Survey Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

23. Descriptive Methods Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors.

24. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
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25. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.

26. Scatterplots
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

27. Data showing height and temperament in people.

28. Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of

29. Correlation and Causation
OBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.
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30. Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form illusory correlations.
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
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32. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

33. Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of the amount of homework on intelligence, homework is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
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34. Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of homework upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.

35. Statistics show the truth
What is the percent of minority students in urban schools today?
Asian
African-American
Hispanic
Other

36. Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.
OBJECTIVE 15| Explain the importance of statistical principles, and give an example of their use in daily life.
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales
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37. Describing Data
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can misrepresent data.
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38. Stop

39. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores.
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40. Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution

41. Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of variation.
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42. Standard Deviation

43. Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
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44. When is a Difference Significant?
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.
OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful.
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45. Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior.
OBJECTIVE 21| Explain the value of simplified laboratory conditions in discovering general principles of behavior.
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46. Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?
FAQ
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?
Ans: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same.
OBJECTIVE 22| Discuss whether psychological research can be generalized across cultures and genders.
Ami Vitale/ Getty Images
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47. Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?
FAQ
Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?
Ans: Yes. Biology determines our sex, and culture further bends the genders. However, in many ways woman and man are similarly human.

48. Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?
FAQ
Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?
Ans: Studying animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology across animals and humans.
OBJECTIVE 23| Explain why psychologists study animals, and discuss the ethics of experimentation with both animals and humans.
D. Shapiro, © Wildlife Conservation Society
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49. Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
FAQ
Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal with animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines in caring for these animals.

50. Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
FAQ
Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm beyond normal levels encountered in daily life may be carried out.

51. Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?
FAQ
Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?
Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments.
OBJECTIVE 24| Describe how personal values can influence psychologists’ research and its application, and discuss psychology’s potential to manipulate people.
© Roger Shepard
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52. Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
FAQ
Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of psychology is to help humanity with problems such as war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family dysfunction, etc.