1. Robert J. Marzano, Debra J. Pickering, and Jane E. Pollock
Classroom Instruction That Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement
Robert J. Marzano,
Debra J. Pickering, and
Jane E. Pollock

2. Identifying Similarities and Differences
“Research has found these mental operations to be basic to human thought, they might be considered the core of all learning.”
Marzano, Pickering & Pollock 2001
Discuss the power of patterns that our brain uses to problem solve. As adults we continuously use our past experiences to solve new challenges.
THE HOOK: Use the mole story on server.
Tell the group that you have a problem for them to solve. Read the story aloud.
Give them only a minute or two with a partner….or a small group…..They should be stumped.
Read the(Dictator/Fortress) story (page 14, column 2--Classroom Instruction that Works) aloud.
Pose the question, “How does the 1st story relate to the 2nd: Discuss how you can apply knowledge from one situation to another situation by looking at similarities and differences between the two.
They should be able to come up with a possible solution for the mole problem by making the connections between the two stories.
When a group of doctors were presented with a medical problem of a similar nature, only 10% were able to successfully solve the problem. After hearing the dictator story 90% were able to able to solve.
Talk about how we make connections to our lives constantly by putting events, topics, people into our perspective.
Once the similarities are identified between the story, which is easy to understand, and the problem, which is difficult to solve, the solution becomes more obvious.
Refer to the quote by Marzano, Pickering and Pollock.

3. Strategy Effect Size Similarities and Differences: 1.61 Effect Size
.20 is a relatively SMALL effect size
.50 can be considered a MEDIUM effect size
.80 can be considered LARGE size
Similarities and Differences:
1.61 Effect Size
45 Percentile Gain
Review the research about effect sizes and what is considered to be a large effect.
Highlight similarities and differences as having a HUGE effect size. In fact, it has the biggest.
This research looked at 31 studies and found that this strategy resulted in the largest effect size with the greatest gain in student scores.
However, keep in mind that what the research does not tell us is which strategy works best for which subjects or specific populations of students.

4. Similarities and Differences
analogy
teacher directed
metaphor
differences
similarities
contrast
classify
graphic organizer
compare
Choose three words either vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. Write a sentence using those words with the knowledge you have now. We will be revisiting your sentences later to see if your thinking has changed.
Share out answers in small groups.

5. Generalizations from Research and Theory
1. Presenting students with explicit guidance in identifying similarities and differences enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge
One way to help students identify similarities and differences between topics is to simply point them out to the students. This does not mean that the instruction has to be rigid, however, because the similarities and differences presentation can include discussion and investigation by students.
Read book, “Feathers and Fools” by Mem Fox (Middle school and high school groups), “Thank you, Mr. Falker” by Patricia Polacco (Elementary groups)
Use the direct approach-Character synthesis worksheet

6. Generalizations from Research and Theory
2. Asking students to independently identify similarities and differences enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge.
Research supports the effectiveness of having students identify similarities and differences without teacher input.
Both “student directed” and “teacher directed” instructional activities focused on identifying similarities and differences have their place in the classroom.
If more homogeneous conclusions are most useful in a particular situation then the choice of a “teacher directed” activity would be appropriate. For example, if a teacher needs to have specific similarities and differences identified as part of content students need to learn they may choose to implement a “teacher directed” activity. If the goal is to stimulate divergent thinking among students, a “student directed” activity may provide those more heterogeneous conclusions.
Do “Just Like” activity

7. Generalizations from Research and Theory
3. Representing similarities and differences in graphic or symbolic form enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge.
The research strongly shows that graphic and symbolic representations of similarities and differences enhance understanding of content.
Do “My Character and Me”

8. Generalizations from Research and Theory
4. Identification of similarities and differences can be accomplished in a variety of ways. The identification of similarities and differences is a highly robust activity.
Research shows that four different forms of identifying similarities and differences are highly effective.

9. Comparing: Identifying similarities and differences
Comparing --similarities
Contrasting--differences
Classifying: Grouping based on shared characteristics
Technically, the term comparing refers to identifying similarities while the term contrasting refers to identifying differences. Many educators use the term comparing to talk about both, which is what Marzano has chosen to do.
An example for identifying similarities and differences
Similarities: The games of soccer and football are similar because they both use balls and are played on rectangular fields.
Differences: The games of soccer and football use different shaped balls. Soccer players don’t wear helmets while football players do.
To classify, a student first identifies similarities and differences within a set of elements and then organizes these into categories based on the similarities and differences. For example. Once I know about the games of football, soccer, tennis and badminton, I could organize the games into the categories of games that use balls and games that use rackets.

10. Metaphors: Identifying a pattern in a topic and finding another topic that is different at the literal level but has the same pattern at a more abstract level.
Analogies: Drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect.

11. Reflecting on Current Beliefs and Practice
What is my instructional purpose when I ask my students to compare, classify, and create analogies and metaphors?
What are the benefits for my students in using these strategies?
What are the challenges I have encountered when I’ve used these strategies?
Jot down answers and share in small groups

12. Common Practices in Identifying Similarities and Differences
Teacher directed explicit guidance
Student directed activities
Graphic or symbolic representations
Teacher directed explicit guidance: Teacher controls the variables in the process. He or she gives the students highly structured tasks.
Student directed activities: Students take control of their own learning by controlling the variables in the process. In order to do this, they will need a solid understanding of the process being used.
Teachers cannot expect to achieve a 45 percentile gain without using student selected strategies.
Graphic organizers or symbolic representations are ways to visually show similarities and differences.
Students need to develop the ability to choose from a variety of strategies that can be used to identify similarities and differences. We need to teach the steps along the way so that the teacher can relinquish responsibility to the student to choose what works for them so they can do it themselves. They should be able to choose from a variety of strategies they’ve learned to use what is best for the specific assignment they are given.
Ability to choose from a variety of strategies

13. Comparing to identify similarities and differences
Use to deepen understanding of content
Use in all subject areas

14. Classroom Practice Give students model for process
Use familiar content to teach steps for comparing
Use graphic organizers
Guide students as needed

15. 1. Give students model for process
Go beyond automatic comparisons to teach a systematic process
Students are responsible for using the process
Teach students to identify important characteristics for comparing
In our everyday life we often use the process of comparing. We make these comparisons automatically. In the classroom we need to use the process of comparing to deepen students’ understanding of the content they are learning. We need to teach them a process for comparing, provide opportunities to practice, and hold them accountable for using it.
Marzano, Pickering and Pollack recommend a process for comparing based on :Dimensions of Learning”. The steps for comparing include: (go to next slide)

16. Steps for Comparing Choose the items to compare.
Select the characteristics you want to compare.
Using these characteristics describe how the items are the same and different.
A key to effective comparison is to identify important characteristics-those that enhance students’ understanding of similarities and differences. For example, when comparing two historical figures it might be less effective to compare where they are born than to compare their leadership philosophy.
How does this information add to our understanding?

17. 2. Use familiar content to teach steps for comparing
Common comparisons can clarify the steps used.
Students can later apply to content information.
Everyday comparisons help students understand the steps in the comparing process.
By comparing something that they know, based on a set of characteristics, students can uncover information that supports or refutes statements that are made. Using the process for comparing with something they are familiar will help them use it later with content information.
For example they could compare food from fast food restaurants based on characteristics such as: type of cuisine, nutrition, cost, etc.

18. 3. Use graphic organizers
Venn diagram
Comparison matrix
These are visual tools for helping students make comparisons. The Venn diagram uses two intersecting circles to show how items are similar and different. Similarities are shown in the intersection of the circles. Differences are shown in the other part of each circle.
We would like for you to put these 2 tools to use. We would like for you to compare the educational experiences at the elementary, middle school and high school. You will be using a Venn diagram or a comparison matrix. At each table, have half use each of the 2 graphic organizers. After completing the graphic organizer discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each at your table.
Sample-Hoyt-p. 108-dual bio poem (in handout)

19. 4. Guide students as needed
Move from teacher directed to student directed comparisons.
When students are first learning to use the process, the teacher will give them more of the information they need to complete the task. For example the teacher may choose the characteristics that they students are going to use in the comparison. As the students become familiar with the process, teachers can give less structure and less guidance. Students need to learn how to choose meaningful characteristics for their comparisons.

20. Another comparing tool… Semantic Feature Analysis
Used in vocabulary to learn a word’s meaning by comparing its features to those of other words from the same category or class.
Category
Feature
Category Item #1
Category Item #2
With a semantic feature analysis chart, we can examine related concepts but make distinctions between them according to particular criteria across which the concepts can be compared.
If the concept is associated with the feature or characteristic, the student records a Y or a + in the grid where that column and row intersect. If the feature is not associated with the concept, an N or a - is used.
Refer to samples and info included in the handout.

21. Classifying
Organizing items into groups based on how they are the same.
Critical skill is identifying the rules for including an item in a class or category.
Like comparing, classifying is something we do all of the time in our daily living. Students can use a process to classify important information. Classifying is a complex process that students need to learn about and practice.

22. Recommendations for Classroom Practice
Give students a model for the process
Use familiar content to each students the steps in classifying
Give students graphic organizers for classifying
Guide students as needed
Refer to the fact these are the same as the recommendations for comparing.

23. The Model of Classifying
Step 1: Identify the items to classify
Step 2: Determine shared attributes of the items
Step 3: Create a category by describing the attributes of the items to be included
Step 4: Create additional categories based on attributes
Step 5: Repeat the steps until all items have been placed in a category
Again model an example from each of the generalizations; teacher directed, student directed and both with a graphic organizer.
Give students a model for the process-teacher directed activity
Use familiar content-we would start with daily living examples
Graphic organizers-we are going to use one in our teacher directed activity
Teacher directed: Use shapes (they are the elements) and provide students with the following categories:straight sided, curved sided, contains both. Use classifying organizer-e.g. p. 354.
Student directed: Create new categories based on attributes. Use the blank organizer in the packet.
4. Guide students as needed is the fourth classroom practice which we have just modeled with you.

24. Another comparing or classifying tool… Content Frame
Use to understand how ideas are related
Visual representation of content
Way to organize information that improves comprehension and retention of science and social studies information
Two questions to ask:
What are the important categories of information?
How might these categories be subdivided?
Content Frame may be used for comparison if used to compare several articles on self-sustained silent reading which become the categories of information and specific questions become the way to subdivide the categories. Questions such as” What is sustained silent reading? How might sustained silent reading be implemented? How might students benefit from sustained silent reading?”
It would be used for classifying if the categories of information was a list of animals and the subdivided categories were questions such as “How many legs? What type of body covering?

25. Word Sort Activities
Closed Sort-teacher directs the categories that are generated
Open Sort-student directs categories generated
Put up one activity at a time follow the directions below for each activity:
Teacher directed: Read the word cards and sort out the verbs.
Student Directed: Use word cards in envelopes (one set per table) ask participants to remove the cards and read them as a table group. Decide on the attributes that you will sort your words. Write the attributes your table identifies on the post it notes and sort the words according to the attributes.
Do a gallery walk to look at the ways each group have sorted the cards.
Revisit the graphic organizer concept: Again these words can be placed in a Venn.
Using this strategy will impact vocabulary in content areas and should influence scores in comprehension.
The key again is that the students are able to sort the words into groups that they can describe and identify why each group was established.

26. Classifying Self-Assessment
Checklist
Grades K-2
Rubric
Grades 3-12
Teacher Rubric
Grades 9-12
Refer to AEA 7 examples in handout.

27. Four Levels of Metacognitive Thought
Tacit Use: without thinking about it
Aware Use: aware that and when
Strategic Use: conscious strategies
Reflective Use: reflects before, during and after
Swartz and Perkins (1989)
Research by Swartz and Perkins refined the concept of metacognition beyond the general definition of being aware of and controlling your own mind and thinking. They distinguished four levels of metacognitive thought.
Tacit use: using a skill or strategy without consciously thinking about the fact you are using it. Example: Young child uses a temper tantrum to get his/her own way. They know their behavior works, however, they are not consciously aware of what they are doing or why they are doing it.
Aware use: When the child is aware that a behavior gets a certain reaction they begin to sense some control over his/her environment. The child who realizes that their temper tantrum affects their desired outcome so they stop crying as soon as any type of intervention is made. He/she is becoming aware of a cause-effect relationship.
Strategic use: involves deliberate, conscious use of a skill or strategy. The child makes a plan. He know that if he throws a tantrum he will get what he wants because he has tried the strategy (tantrum) before and it worked. He employs his skills and strategies consciously with a strategic plan in mind.
Reflective use: is the most sophisticated level of metacognition incorporating reflection and self-evaluation. To continue the tantrum scenario, the child would evaluate his/her options before deciding which strategy to select to get what he/she wants. After reflecting on his choices and evaluating his chances with each, he/she selects the one that’s best.
(From “How to Teach for Metacognitive Reflection” by Robin Fogarty)

28. Progression Toward Independent Learning Over Time
Basic Skills of Independence
Structured Independence
Shared Independence
Self-Guided Learning
Look at the page in the handout that further explains the progression toward independent learning over time. Can you place on the continuum the teacher-directed and student-directed tasks we have experienced for comparing and classifying?

29. Reflection
Consider the information about levels of metacognition and the Progression Toward Independent Learning Over Time continuum.
What are the ramifications as you plan comparing or classifying tasks for your students?
Only when one becomes aware of his or her own behavior can he or she begin to self-regulate it. Only by planning, monitoring, and evaluating can a student (or teacher) begin to understand and change. We need to provide time for our students to reflect on these things just as we have provided reflection time for you.

30. Creating Metaphors
Two items that are not literally the same but can share an abstract concept
For example:
grass and children (grow)
a tree and Hulk Hogan (strong)
the sun and a smile (brighten your day)
It is important to give these concrete examples of what metaphors are.
Explain how it is essential to scaffold this concept when working with students.
The examples we gave here had both elements and the abstract explained. In the next activity we will show how to take away one part at a time so individuals may ultimately create their own metaphors.
EXPLICIT TEACHING-BUT THE ONE THING WE KNOW IS THEY DON’T GET THE ABSTRACT
TEACHER DIRECTED ACTIVITIES GIVE ONE ELEMENT AND THE ABSTRACT
STUDENT DIRECTED ACTIVITIES GIVE ONE ELEMENT AND the student will create the abstract as well as the 2nd element.

31. What is a metaphor? Greek:carry something across or transfer
Most dictionaries and textbooks: a comparison between two things, based on resemblance or similarity, without using “like” or “as”
Kenneth Burke: a device for seeing something in terms of something else
John Searle: understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another
Here are some suggested definitions:

32. Creating Metaphors
Identify a general or basic pattern in a specific topic.
Select another topic that is different at the literal level, but has the same general pattern.
Authors frequently use metaphors to give readers strong images. On the surface, the items have no obvious relationship. At the abstract level they do. Instructional strategies using metaphors should always address the abstract relationship between the elements.

33. Recommendations for Classroom Practice
Give students a model for the process
Cell as a factory
DNA molecule is a ladder
Eye to a camera
Heart to a force pump
Some model metaphors are listed on the slide.

34. “What a thrill--my thumb instead of an onion
“What a thrill--my thumb instead of an onion. The top quite gone except for a sort of hinge of skin….A celebration this is. Out of a gap a million soldiers run, redcoats every one.
Sylvia Plath, “Cut”
This is an example of a metaphor from the poem “Cut” by Sylvia Plath. Have the participants identify the metaphor. Blood to the soldiers.

35. Recommendations for Classroom Practice
Use familiar content to create metaphors.
Common metaphors help students understand the steps in creating a metaphor.
Remember the example of the eye and the camera-that would be familiar content to most students.

36. Recommendations for Classroom Practice
Use graphic organizers for creating metaphors
Guide students as needed.
The graphic organizer used is a metaphor organizer. Share the metaphor diagram example.
Teacher directed metaphor task: the teacher provides the first element in the abstract relationship. Giving students a scaffold to build on as they complete the metaphor
Student directed-give them one element and ask them to identify the second element and the relationship. Might work in pairs for extra support.
Explaining their metaphor will help students analyze their reasoning and refine their metaphor

37. Teacher directed metaphor task
Read the story.
Review the literal parts of the metaphor and the abstract relationship in the model.
Complete the metaphor.
Use the metaphor organizer comparing the trip to raising a child with a disability. (“Welcome to Holland”--in handout)

38. Student directed metaphor task
Identify the element and use the information to determine the literal pattern.
Record the basic information in a general or abstract way.
Find a new element to which the literal pattern applies.
The erosion example-the second example could be family life or self esteem
The balance scales example-the second example could be civil rights, gender equity,
The next step would be for you to have the students complete the entire metaphor organizer-but we feel this would be a very difficult process.

39. Analogies Identifying relationships between two concepts
See how things that appear to be dissimilar are similar
Increase understanding of new information
Analogies help us see how things that appear to be dissimilar are similar.
A:B:C:D form is read “A is to B as C is to D”

40. Analogies Make connections between things that seem different
Take A:B::C:D form
Samples:
warp:wood::blister:paint
arid:humid::desert:swamp
Like metaphors, analogies help us make connections between things that seem very different.
Analogies help us see how things that appear to be dissimilar are similar.
A:B:C:D form is read “A is to B as C is to D”
Analogies can help explain an unfamiliar concept by making a comparison to something familiar. Concrete representations can help us understand the relationships.

41. Analogies
Most complex format for identifying similarities and differences
Deal with “relationships between relationships”

42. Recommendations for Classroom Practice
Giving students a model for the process
Using familiar content to teach students the steps in creating analogies
Giving students graphic organizers for creating analogies
Giving students guidance as needed
Giving students a model for the process
An analogy pushes us to think about how items and concepts are related. How do these two things interact? How is this relationship similar to the relationship between the second pair of items? Because analogies contain several elements and relationships, they often seem complicated to students. Providing students with steps in a process for creating an analogy can help students with them.
Using familiar content to teach students the steps in creating analogies.
Students will see analogies on many assessments such as PSAT, SAT, or ACT. The types of relationships included in those problems might include: concepts that are similar, concepts that are opposites or dissimilar, concepts that are members of the same class or category, concepts that include a class name and a member of that class, concepts that include one element being a part of the other element, concepts when one element in a pair turns into the other element in the pair, concepts where one element performs a function on the other, or concepts that are comparable in terms of quantity or size.
By giving students examples of these various relationships, teachers can help them to recognize the patterns of analogies they see and provide guidance in constructing analogies.
It is best to work with familiar content, rather than content that has just been learned,when teaching students to analyze or construct analogies.

43. Analogies Step 1: Identify the connection between two words
Step 2: Identify another pair of words that have the same
relationship
Here are the steps in the process which can serve as a model for students when working with academic content.
Care should be taken to be sure that students discover that analogies show differences as well as similarities.

44. Analogies Scaffolding
Teacher Directed-Provide all elements and have students
describe relationship
Student Directed-Teacher provides one set of elements and
students provide the second element as well as the abstract connection.
Once again we should move from structured teacher-directed analogy tasks, relinquishing responsibility until the tasks become primarily student-directed.

45. Teacher-Directed Analogies
bicycle
skateboard
is to
Relationship:____________________________________
The teacher provides a great deal of structure at first providing the analogy on the slide. The teacher would ask students to explain how the relationship between bicycle and skateboard is similar to the relationship between rowboat and canoe. Both a rowboat and canoe are human-powered water vessels. Both a bicycle and a skateboard are human powered land vehicles. (A sailboat is not for land, and a motorcycle and car both have engines.)
rowboat
canoe
is to

46. Teacher Directed Analogies
Rodin
Monet
is to
Relationship:____________________________________
Another teacher-directed task is to give students incomplete analogies and have them fill in the missing elements and explain the relationship. Students will supply painter in the fourth box. Rodin was a French sculptor. Monet was a French painter.
This type of activity requires more work than the previous slide, however, it continues to provide the students with a predetermined relationship that they must discover.
sculptor
is to

47. Student-Directed Analogies
A.W.O.L.
soldier
is to
Relationship:____________________________________
Student directed analogy tasks ask students to provide more elements of an analogy than the teacher-directed tasks. For example, the teacher might provide the elements of the first pair of an analogy and ask them to generate the elements of the second pair.
This slide and the preceding several contain a graphic organizer used for analogy tasks. The structure of this organizer helps students to understand the nature of analogies.
The graphic organizers and analogy tasks can be used to deepen thinking about a content-area topic (especially when the students are required to explain and defend the relationships they create to link the pairs) or to review for a test.
To be able to guide your students effectively in writing analogies, you need to be confident of your own understanding of how to create analogies.
is to

48. Student-Directed Analogies
is to
Relationship:____________________________________
Participants can create the entire analogy.
is to

49. Similarities and Differences
analogy
teacher directed
metaphor
differences
similarities
contrast
classify
graphic organizer
compare
Look back at the sentence you wrote as our session began. Based on the information you’ve gotten, determine how accurate your initial sentence was. Make any necessary revisions and share the results with those at your table.
How could this process work in your classroom?

50. Successful Implementation
The key to all learning is that the student
is able to pull the strategies and apply
them to situations as necessary. The
graphic organizers are tools, but the student
has not truly learned until the pattern of
thinking becomes an independent skill.
Essential Strategies Planning Sheet-go over with them on an overhead
They’ll get NCR copies of Planning Sheet to use in their planning.