1. Values

2. Definition
Conception, implicit or explicit, of what an individual or group regards as desirable, and in terms of which they select means and ends of action
“To say that a person ‘has a value’ is to say that he has an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally and socially preferable to alternative modes of conduct or end-states of existence (Rokeach, 1969: )”

3. Judgemental element as to what is good, right and desirable
Intrinsic, (usually) unquestioned part of oneself – brought to the fore by situations
Acquired early in life from various agents of socialisation and through various modes (reinforcement, punishment, imitation, etc.), but affected by experience, individuality and ‘times’ - hence though they are stable and enduring, they can change too

4. Functions of values
Part of psychological makeup – influence behaviour (hence complete objectivity is never possible)
Guide action
Help us to take particular positions on various issues
Justify action
Guide our presentation of self to others
Influence comparison with others
Facilitate our understanding of and interaction with others
Affect moral judgments of self and others

5. Value system
Value system is the ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity – this shows the relative importance of we assign to each value

6. Classification of values
Helps us to distinguish and compare values and values systems of individuals, groups and cultures
Spranger’s classification (quoted by Guth & Tagiuri)
Theoretical – empirical, rational, critical ‘truth’
Economic – practical, wealth, resources ‘business’

7. Aesthetic – artistic, harmonious, graceful
Social – altruistic, philantropic, people as ends, unselfish, kind – ‘love’
Political – power, recognition, competition
Religious – relate to the universe in a meaningful way, mystical orientation, ‘unity’

8. Rokeach’s classification
Terminal values are desirable end state of existence that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime. Eg: Peace in the world
Instrumental values are preferable modes of behaviour or means of achieving one’s terminal values. Eg: Courteous, altruistic beahviour
Within these 2 groups, values could be self-centered or other-centered

9. Kinicki
Espoused values – which are cited as being preferred or aspired for
Enacted values – which are actually exhibited or manifested in action
Value congruence – the gap between enacted and espoused values

10. Applications in work life
Organisational values – linked to organisational culture
Internal functioning and external adaptation
Individual versus organisational values (degree of congruence)
Individual level
Interpersonal differences
Do my values change or not in a group context – why?
Espoused versus enacted values
Can values be maintained in an absolute sense or does their enactment get influenced by contextual factors?
Experience of dilemmas and their resolution
Value accorded to work
Values in the Indian context – the changing psychological contract
the mutual beliefs, perceptions, and informal obligations between an employer and an employee.

11. Value accorded to work
“The degree of worth a person ascribes to particular aspects or dimensions of work (Rao, 1991: 165).”
A possible set work dimensions/aspects that can be valued in a managerial job
Scope for:
Being creative
Earning money
Being independent
Enjoying prestige and status
Being of service to others
Having a stable and secure job
Having positive relationships with colleagues
Having good work conditions (Rao, 1991)

12. Mean Value Rankings of Executives, Union Members, and Activists
Source: Based on W. C. Frederick and J. Weber, “The Values of Corporate Managers and Their Critics: An Empirical Description and Normative Implications,” in W. C. Frederick and L. E. Preston (eds.) Business Ethics: Research Issues and Empirical Studies (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 123–44.

13. Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce

14. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior
Ethical Climate in the Organization
Ethical Values and Behaviors of Leaders

15. Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures
Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
low distance: relatively equal distribution high distance: extremely unequal distribution

16. Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Individualism
The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups.
Collectivism
A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.

17. Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Achievement
The extent to which societal values are characterized by assertiveness, materialism and competition.
Nurturing
The extent to which societal values emphasize relationships and concern for others.

18. Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Uncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.

19. Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Long-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.
Short-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfilling social obligations.

20. Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)
Masculinity vs. Femininity
High masculine countries: stress earnings, recognition, advancement, challenge, wealth; high job stress (e.g., Germanic countries)
High feminine countries: emphasize caring for others and quality of life; cooperation, friendly atmosphere., employment security, group decision making; low job stress (e.g., Norway)

21. The GLOBE Framework
Cross Cultural investigation of leadership and national culture
Using data from 828 Organization in 62 countries.
Identified 9 dimensions on which national culture differ
Resembles the Hofstead dimensions
Added dimensions such as Humane orientation (degree to which society rewards individuals for being kind to others)and Performance oriented (degree to which society rewards group members for performance improvement)