1. Optimal Surface Segmentation in Volumetric Images A Graph-Theoretic Approach
Kang Li1, Xiaodong Wu1, Danny Z. Chen2, Milan Sonka1
1The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA
2The University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN

2. Motivation: Diaphragm segmentation
3-D: determine diaphragm surface
4-D: determine diaphragm surface + motion during breathing cycle

3. Motivation: Segmentation of Vascular Surfaces

4. Motivation: Left Ventricular Surface Segmentation

5. Current Approaches to Surface Segmentation
Serial 2-D approaches
All suffer from the lack of context information across slices
Even more apparent in 4-D (3-D+time)
Existing 3-D approaches
Level sets, region-grow, AAMs, etc. have their own weaknesses

6. Optimal Segmentation Using Graph Searching Principles
Optimality determined by:
Cost function
Smoothness constraints
2-D: Dynamic programming, Graph Searching…
3-D: Search space is huge – combinatorial explosion
Design of an efficient optimal surface detection algorithm is highly desirable and challenging.

7. Surface Detection in 3-D using Optimal Graph Searching
Previous approaches – exponential complexity
Thedens et al. 1995, computationally infeasible, heuristic approach does not guarantee optimality
Frank et al. 1996, 3-D dynamic programming, no optimal solution
Chen, Wu 2002
s-t cut approach
theoretical proof of optimality
low-order polynomial complexity solution

8. Our Approach to Optimal (Hyper-) Surface Detection
A novel method in Computational Geometry
Theoretical Framework: Chen, Wu 2002
Minimum s-t Cut Approach
Low-order polynomial complexity
Applicable to 2-D; Extendible to n-D

9. Terrain-like or Tubular Surfaces

10. Flow-chart of the Method
Cost Function
Smoothness Constraint
Original Image
3-D Graph Construction
Graph Cost Transform
Find Minimum-Cost Closed Set
(Minimum s-t Cut)
Surface Solution

11. Example: Min s-t Cut approach to finding min-cost “path”
Every pixel corresponds to a node in the graph, node costs used
The path intersects with each column at exactly one node
Smoothness constraint:
max. vertical distance of neighbor-column nodes = 1 1
Min-cost path (cost = 2) 1

12. Edge Construction:
Connect each node to its bottom-most neighbor in the adjacent column.
Build vertical edges along each column, pointing downwards.

13. 5 – 4 = 1 1 -3 -1 – 2 = -3 3 1 -2 -7 Cost Transformation:
Along each column, subtract the cost of each node by the cost of the node immediately beneath it.
The bottom-most two nodes are unchanged.
5 – 4 = 1 1 -3
-1 – 2 = -3 3 1 -2 -7

14. Cost Transformation (cont’d):
M: sum of costs of the bottommost nodes
If M >= 0:
Select ANY one of those nodes
Subtract (M + 1) from its cost 1 -3 3 1 -2 -7
3 – (11 + 1) = -9 -9
M = = 11 >= 0

15. 1 -3 Not a closed set 3 1 -2 -7 A closed set -9
Compute the Minimum-Cost Closed Set:
Closed set: a subset of the graph with no edges going out
Minimum-cost closed set: A closed set with the minimum total node-cost. 1 -3
Not a closed set 3 1 -2 -7
A closed set -9

16. Compute the Min-Cost Closed Set (cont’d):
Can be solved by a Min s-t Cut (Max Flow) algorithm
2 auxiliary nodes – a start (s) & a terminal (t) are added
An edge-weighted directed graph is built

17. After applying the min s-t cut algorithm …
Find all the nodes that can be reached from s, and the min-cost closed set is identified.
The upper envelope of the min-cost closed set is the solution.

18. Simple Example s-t cut approach to finding minimum-cost path - simple 2D graph example - cost value is associated with each node… - smoothness constraint - max. distance of neighbor-column nodes <= 1

19. Find a path consisting of two nodes, one in each column, having the min total cost…

20. Max vertical distance between neighboring nodes in the path is, say 1…
Node A

21. …called the smoothness constraint
…called the smoothness constraint. So, the neighbors of node A can only be…
Node A

22. Connect each node to its bottom-most neighbor with a directed edge …

23. …Similar for the reverse direction.

24. Continue with the other nodes…

25. We build vertical edges along each column, pointing downwards.

26. Along each column, subtract the cost of each node by that of the node beneath it...
-1 – 2 = -3
2 – 1 = 1
1 – 8 = -7
unchanged

27. If the cost sum of the bottommost 2 vertices is nonnegative, make the sum negative…
3 – 11 – 1 = -9
Sum: = 11 > 0

28. Next, we will compute the minimum cost closed set of this graph…

29. The minimum cost closed set problem can be solved by a Maximum Flow algorithm…

30. Add a source (s) and a sink (t) node…

31. We try to compute max amount of water that can flow from the source to the sink…

32. And we start building the pipes in between…

33. s is connected to the negative-cost nodes
s is connected to the negative-cost nodes. Pipe capacities are determined by…
3 = |-3|
9 = |-9|

34. Similarly, t accepts pipes from the nonnegative-cost nodes...

35. Node costs are no longer needed…

36. Try to find paths from s to t, and push the bottleneck amount of flow through it…

37. After we push a flow, some pipes may become saturated (allowing no more flow).

38. The potential for reverse flow is increased, build pipes allowing water to flow back…

39. Saturated pipes can be removed. We continue to discover new s-t paths…

40. Again, we push some flow, and one new pipe is saturated…

41. Remove all saturated pipes, and we cannot find any path from s to t now…

42. Find the nodes that can be reached from the source, and the minimum-cost closed set is identified.

43. The upper envelope of the min-cost closed set is the solution.

44. 3D Surface
The surface intersects with exactly one voxel of each column of voxels parallel to the z-axis
The difference in z-coordinates between neighboring voxels on a valid surface in x and y directions
smoothness constraint (∆x, ∆y)

45. 3-D Case Principles presented in 2-D are applicable to 3-D
Detect a surface instead of a path
Construct Edges in both x- and y-directions
x- and y-direction may have different smoothness constraints z y x

46. Implementation Issues
Selection of min s-t cut algorithm is critical
Theoretically most efficient: the push-relabel algorithm
Better performance in practice: Boykov-Kolmogorov algorithm (2002)
Memory efficiency is important as well
Adjacency-list and Forward-Star graph representations are not memory-efficient
Implicit-edge graph representation

47. Experimental Methods Phantoms
66 computer-generated phantoms for execution time and memory usage evaluation
72 CT-scanned images of physical phantoms of known sizes for segmentation accuracy measurement
Hundreds of others for verifying various modeling techniques used in the algorithm
Airways
12 in vivo pulmonary CT scans of 6 human subjects
6 TLC (85% lung vol.), 6 FRC (55% lung vol.)
Image Size: 512 x 512 x (500 to 600)
Resolution: 0.7 x 0.7 x 0.6 mm3
317 airway segments (4212 slices)

48. Execution Speed Image size: 20 x 20 x 20 – 300 x 300 x 300
AMD Athlon 1.7 GHz

49. Accuracy Evaluation in Phantoms
Signed error:
Slice-by-slice DP :  0.11 (mm)
Our approach :  0.10 (mm)
Unsigned error:
Slice-by-slice DP :  0.07 (mm)
Our approach :  0.07 (mm)
Unsigned error significantly smaller than Slice-by-slice DP by t-test (p < 0.001)

50. Airway Segmentation
Visually compared 100 randomly selected results to slice-by-slice DP
Better : 45
Equivalent : 52
Both failed : 1
Uncertain : 2
Mean major diameter of results by slice-by-slice DP significantly larger than 3-D approach (p<0.01)

51. Airway Segmentation Slice-by-slice Dynamic Programming
3-D Optimal Surface Detection

52. Airway
Texture
Diaphragm

53. Multiple Interacting Surfaces
Translation (from bottom to top) to avoid empty set
Relations between surfaces modeled by “inter-surface” arcs -1 -3 4 2 1 -2 -1 -3 4 2 1 -2 4 3 1 5 2 A B C -1 -3 4 2 1 -2
Minimum distance of 2 pixels, maximum of 3 pixels
Arc (A,B): If A is in the closure, B must also be in the closure (minimum distance)
Arc (C,A): If C is in the closure, A must also be … (maximum distance)

54. Multiple Interacting Surfaces
Relations between surfaces modeled by “inter-surface” arcs -1 -1 -1 -1 -3 4 2 1 -2 A B C -3 -3 2 4 2 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -2 -3 -3 4 1
Minimum distance of 2 pixels, maximum of 3 pixels
Arc (A,B): If A is in the closure, B must also be in the closure (minimum distance)
Arc (C,A): If C is in the closure, A must also be … (maximum distance)

55. Interacting Surfaces 3D Phantom
Original
Optimal graph
search
single surface
(no shape term)
Optimal graph
search
2 interacting
surfaces
(no shape term)

56. IVUS Simultaneous IEL + EEL

57. Excised Iliac Artery - MR
Original
Manual tracing
Semi-automated
2-D DP
2.4 clicks/slice
Fully automated
4 simultaneous
surfaces in 3D

58. Cartilage Segmentation + Thickness Analysis
Knee Ankle

59. Cartilage Segmentation

60. Cartilage Segmentation Accuracy

61. Pulmonary Airway Inner/Outer Surface Detection

62. Conclusion
A polynomial-time algorithm for detecting multiple interacting optimal surface in a volumetric dataset
Optimality with respect to the cost function, reflecting smoothness constraints and mutual surface relationship constraints
Many nice properties:
Complexity-bound is independent of the smoothness constraints
Solves the circular connectivity criterion of cylindrical surfaces with no performance penalty
Directly extendible to n-D