1. Evolution and Natural Selection

2. Introduction
Evolution – includes all of the changes in the characteristics and diversity of life that occur throughout time.
Evolution can occur on both large and small scales.
Microevolution
Macroevolution

3. Introduction Charles Darwin
Established that all species of life have descended from a common ancestor.
Darwin introduced his theory of Natural Selection.

4. Natural Selection vs. selective breeding
Natural Selection : gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a result of the environment. 
Selective breeding: when the plants/animals have certain characteristics desired, they are selected and are allowed to breed.

5. Advantages
High yielding crops, such as wheat are produced by collecting the seeds from only the plants that have a good yield of wheat.                  
Disease resistant crops can be developed.                  
Animals on farms are bred so that they produce more food, e.g. cows with better meat, hens that lay more eggs.                  
Animals such as dogs and cats are bred for fashion. They may also be bred to do a particular job (e.g. sheepdogs).                  

6. Disadvantage:
There are many ethical concerns where people claim that we are 'acting as God' and it is somehow immoral. There is also the risk of mutation which could lead to unwanted consequences.

7. Impact on society:
The impact on society will depend on the extent of where the manipulation of plants and animals is taken. If it is generally mild, the majority of society may accept it, however there are also ethical issues involved and religious groups could be strongly against it.

8. Natural Selection
In any population of organisms there is natural variation.
Some of these variations will allow the organisms possessing them to survive and reproduce better than those without these particular traits.

9. Natural Selection – High Reproductive Potential
Darwin observed that organisms have the potential for very high fertility.
Organisms have the potential to produce, and often do produce large numbers of offspring.
Population size would quickly become unmanageable if all of the offspring survived.

10. Natural Selection – Population Size Remains Constant
Despite this high potential fertility, natural populations usually remain constant in size, except for small fluctuations.
Not all of the potential offspring survive.

11. Natural Selection – Limited Resources
Resources that organisms need to survive are limited.
Food, water, shelter, nesting sites, etc.

12. Natural Selection – Competition
If there are not enough resources for all of the individuals, there will be competition for those resources.
Survivors represent a small part of the individuals produced each generation.

13. Natural Selection – Populations Show Variation
Which individuals will survive is often not a matter of luck.
Populations show variation – individuals are not identical.
They differ in many different traits.

14. Natural Selection – Variation is Heritable
Some of the variation between individuals in the population is heritable.
It can be passed down from one generation to the next.

15. Natural Selection – Some traits Enhance Survival
Some of the traits found in the population enhance the survival and reproduction of the organisms possessing them.

16. Natural Selection – Adaptation
The favored traits will spread through the population.
Over many generations, the species will become adapted to its environment.
Over time, these changes can lead to the formation of a new species.

17. Adaptation
A species may become adapted to its environment in response to environmental pressures.
A trait may be favored due to enhanced survival or reproduction when faced with a particular aspect of the environment.

18. Natural Selection – Important Points
Natural selection is not random. It occurs in response to environmental pressures and results in adaptation.
When natural selection is occurring, some individuals are having better reproductive success than others.

19. Upsetting Genetic Equilibrium
Natural selection is not the only way that allele frequencies can change from one generation to the next.
Genetic Drift – a random loss of alleles.
Mutation – a new mutation can add alleles.
Nonrandom mating – inbreeding increases the number of homozygous traits.
Migration – shuffles alleles between populations; can prevent speciation.

20. Genetic Drift
The smaller the sample, the greater the chance of deviation from expected results.
These random deviations from expected frequencies are called genetic drift.
Allele frequencies are more likely to deviate from the expected in small populations.

21. Genetic Drift Which allele gets lost is due to random chance.
Over time, drift tends to reduce genetic variation through random loss of alleles.
Frequency CR = 0.7
Frequency CW = 0.3
Frequency CR = 0.5
Frequency CW = 0.5
Frequency CR = 1.0
Frequency CW = 0
CRCR = red
CRCW = pink
CWCW = white

22. The Bottleneck Effect
Sometimes a catastrophic event can severely reduce the size of a population.
The random assortment of survivors may have different allele frequencies.
This is a type of genetic drift called the bottleneck effect.

23. The Founder Effect
Founder effect – Another type of genetic drift occurs when a small group of individuals becomes separated from the population and form a new population. The allele frequencies in their gene pool may be different than the original population.

24. What was the mechanism of evolution that Darwin proposed?
Question 1
What was the mechanism of evolution that Darwin proposed?
Natural Selection
Macroevolution
Genetic drift
Chromosomal basis of inheritance

25. Question 1
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26. Question 1
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27. Question 3
During natural selection, some organisms will survive & reproduce better than others. This is due to:
Random chance
Humans choosing which animals to breed
Environmental pressures resulting in organisms with certain traits having the best reproductive success
Luck

28. Question 3
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29. Question 3
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30. Which statement about adaptation is NOT true?
Question 4
Which statement about adaptation is NOT true?
A species may become adapted to its environment in response to environmental pressures.
A species is perfectly adapted to its environment from the beginning.
As favored traits spread through the population, a species will become adapted to its environment.
When an environment changes, or when individuals move to a new environment, natural selection may result in adaptation to the new conditions, sometimes this results in a new species.

31. Question 4
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32. Question 4
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33. How can allele frequencies change from one generation to the next?
Question 5
How can allele frequencies change from one generation to the next?
Genetic drift
Natural selection
Mutation
Migration
All of the above

34. Question 5
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35. Question 5
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36. Which of the following is NOT due to random chance?
Question 6
Which of the following is NOT due to random chance?
Genetic drift
The bottleneck effect
Natural selection
The founder effect

37. Question 6
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38. Question 6
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39. After a catastrophe reduces the size of a population, the survivors may have a different set of allele frequencies. This is called
Question 7
The bottleneck effect
Natural selection
The founder effect
All of the above

40. Question 7
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41. Question 7
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