Cognitive: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

Cognitive: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
Chapter 7

Chapter 7 Learning Objective Menu
LO Mental images and concepts in thinking LO Solving problems, make decisions and artificial intelligence LO Failure of problem solving and creative thinking LO Definition of intelligence LO Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed LO Mental retardation and what causes it LO Giftedness and does giftedness guarantee success LO Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence LO Language and different elements and structure of language LO Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language LO Ways to improve thinking Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Learning Objectives in Chapter 7
VII. Cognition Compare & contrast cognitive processes Identify problem-solving strategies Characteristics of creative thought and thinkers Biological, cognitive & cultural factors in language Key contributors in cognitive psychology Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Learning Objectives in Chapter 7
XI. Testing & Individual Differences Define intelligence & how psychologists measure it Key contributors in intelligence research Explain how psychologists design tests Compare theories of intelligence The meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve Cultural influences on the definition of intelligence Appropriate testing practices in relation to culture-fair test uses Relevant labels related to intelligence testing Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking and Mental Images
LO Mental images and concepts in thinking AP Compare & contrast cognitive processes Thinking and Mental Images Thinking (cognition) - mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others. Mental images - mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.1 Mental images and concepts in thinking AP Compare & contrast cognitive processes Concepts Concepts - ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities. Superordinate concept - the most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit.” Basic level type - an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized, such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear.” Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.1 Mental images and concepts in thinking AP Compare & contrast cognitive processes Concepts Subordinate concept – the most specific category of a concept, such as one’s pet dog or a pear in one’s hand. Formal concepts - concepts that are defined by specific rules or features. Natural concepts - concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world. Prototype - an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept. A platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.1 Mental images and concepts in thinking
AP Compare & contrast cognitive processes Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO Solving problems, making decisions and artificial intelligence AP Identify problem solving strategies Problem-Solving Problem solving - process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways. Trial and error (mechanical solution) – problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found. Algorithms - very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO Solving problems, making decisions and artificial intelligence AP Identify problem solving strategies Problem-Solving Heuristic - an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.” Means–end analysis - heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference. Representativeness heuristic – used for classification or categorization of objects by similar traits. Availability heuristic – based on the likelihood of an event occuring to recall relevant information (ex. How many times does the Bible use the word Jesus?) Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Problem-Solving Heuristics
LO Solving problems, making decisions and artificial intelligence AP Identify problem solving strategies Problem-Solving Heuristics Working backward – Look at the goal and work backward to see how you’d accomplish it. Subgoals – breaking down the task into parts Insight – “light bulb effect” (Gestalt idea) when you realize something and weren’t necessarily thinking about it or were but weren’t focused Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Artificial Intelligence
LO Solving problems, making decisions and artificial intelligence Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) - the creation of a machine that can think like a human. True flexibility of human thought processes has yet to be developed in a machine. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 7.3 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking AP Identify problem-solving strategies Problem-Solving Barriers Functional fixedness - a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions. Mental set - the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. Confirmation bias – the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.3 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
AP Identify problem-solving strategies Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.3 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking AP Characteristics of creative thought & thinkers Creativity Creativity- the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways. Convergent thinking - type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic. Divergent thinking – type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (kind of creativity). Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognition Intelligence

LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Define intelligence & how psychologists measure it Intelligence Intelligence is the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. It provides the basis for achievement. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Compare theories of intelligence Theories of Intelligence Spearman’s Two-factor Theory (100 + years old) suggested that general intelligence underlies all of our intellectual abilities. g factor – the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence. s factor – the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Compare theories of intelligence Theories of Intelligence In the 1980s and 1990s Howard Gardner proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. His idea is that the intelligences do not depend on each other. His critics believe that exceptional abilities in music or athletics are talents, not intelligence. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence
AP Key contributors in intelligence research/Define intelligence… Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here?
LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Define intelligence & how psychologists measure it According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Movement Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Logical-Mathematical
LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Define intelligence & how psychologists measure it According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Albert Einstein Logical-Mathematical Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Define intelligence & how psychologists measure it According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Visual-spatial Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Define intelligence & how psychologists measure it According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Musical Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Key contributors in intelligence research/Compare theories… Theories of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence - three kinds of intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical. Analytical intelligence - the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving. Creative intelligence - the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems. Practical intelligence – the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.4 Definition of intelligence AP Define intelligence & how psychologists measure it Theories of Intelligence Emotional intelligence – the awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions as well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel what others feel, and socially skilled. Viewed as a powerful influence on success in life. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

EQ Characteristics Self-awareness: the ability to recognize our own feelings. Mood management: the ability to distract oneself from an uncomfortable feeling. Self-motivation: the ability to move ahead with confidence and enthusiasm. Impulse control: the ability to delay gratification until a task has been accomplished. People skills: the ability to empathize, cooperate, understand, and communicate with others.

If it’s hard to define, how do we measure intelligence?
Testing, of course! Well, that at least helps us measure some forms of intelligence . . . In the early 1900s, Alfred Binet devised the first modern intelligence test in France. Binet assumed intelligence increased with age. It was more an achievement test. The test yielded a score that called the mental age, which showed the intellectual level at which a child functioned.

Types of Testing: How do they differ?
Intelligence tests measure your verbal, mathematical/logical, and spatial intelligence. Aptitude tests are used as predictors of future performance. Example: SAT Achievement tests measure what you know. Most tests you take in school are ____________ tests.

LO 7.5 Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed AP Explain how psychologists design tests IQ Tests Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score. Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Stanford Binet test In 1916 Louis Terman at Stanford University revised the test. The new version was called the Stanford Binet. It provided an actual IQ score, which was computed by dividing the mental age by the chronological age then multiplying the result by 100. The means an IQ of 100 is average. The Stanford Binet is unique because it is untimed.

AP Define intelligence and how psychologists measure it
LO 7.5 Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed AP Define intelligence and how psychologists measure it Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Wechsler Scales The Wechsler Scales are more widely used because there is one test for adults and one for youth. It is divided into subtests: verbal and performance. Verbal tests involve words and ideas. Performance tests focus on spatial subtests. Scores are determined by comparison of others in the same age group.

AP How psychologists design tests
LO 7.5 Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed AP How psychologists design tests Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reliability and Validity
Reliability refers to the consistency of the test. A reliable intelligence test would produce similar results when it is given. A test can be reliable even if it’s not valid. Test validity means the test measures what is supposed to measure. Test scores are compared to real life measures such as academic achievement or job success.

Reliability and Validity
If a test is reliable, it yields consistent results. A test can be both reliable and valid, one or the other, or neither. Reliability is a prerequisite for measurement validity. What are some examples of this from your own experience? When has a test been both? Neither? Reliable but not valid? It’s difficult to create a test that is valid but not reliable. Why?

Which dartboard represents reliability and validity?

Types of Reliability Test-retest: A measure at two different times with no treatment in between will yield the same results. Parallel-forms: Two tests of different forms that supposedly test the same material will give the same results Split-half reliability: If the items are divided in half (e.g., odd vs even questions) the two halves give the same results

Types of Validity Content Validity: Is the full content of a concept’s definition included in the measure? It includes a broad sample of what is being tested, emphasizes important material, and requires appropriate skills. Basically, does it measure what it is supposed to measure? Criterion Validity: Is the measure consistent with what we already know and what we expect?

Norms Norms provide information about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relations to other scores on the test. The percentile is one of the most common types of norm used for testing. Grade norms (1st grade level, 10th grade level) is another type of norm used in the school setting. Another common norm is an age-related norm, in other words, what a child should be able to do at a certain age.

Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed AP How psychologists design tests Development of IQ Tests Standardization - the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed. Validity - the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure. Reliability - the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

List some examples of grade norms and age-related norms that you remember from your elementary and middle school years. Most current intelligence and achievement tests do not use a single norm. They generate a profile that represents performance on each subscale, such as analytical reasoning. For example, the adult Wechsler has eleven subtests with individual norms.

Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed AP How psychologists design tests Development of IQ Tests Deviation IQ scores - a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve
LO 7.5 Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed AP Meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Normal Distribution of IQ scores

Terman’s test is the Stanford-Binet. Terman was one of the creators.

IQ Tests & Cultural Bias
AP Cultural influences on the definition of intelligence AP Appropriate testing practices… IQ Tests & Cultural Bias Cultural bias refers to the tendency of IQ tests to reflect, in language, dialect, and content, the culture of the persons designing the test. People from the same culture as the test designer may have an unfair advantage. Culturally fair tests require the use of non-verbal abilities such as mental rotation of objects. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Appropriate testing practices in relation to culture-fair tests
LO 7.5 Measuring intelligence and how intelligence tests are constructed AP Appropriate testing practices in relation to culture-fair tests Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.6 Mental retardation and what causes it AP Labels related to intelligence testing Mental Retardation Developmentally delayed - condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age. A more acceptable term for mental retardation. Mental retardation or developmental delay is a condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.6 Mental retardation and what causes it AP Labels related to intelligence testing Mental Retardation Four levels of delay are: Mild: 55–70 IQ Moderate: 40–55 IQ Severe: 25–40 IQ Profound: Below 25 IQ. Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments, as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.7 Giftedness and does giftedness guarantee of success AP Labels related to intelligence testing Giftedness Gifted - the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Does Giftedness Guarantee Success?
LO 7.7 Giftedness and does giftedness guarantee of success AP Labels related to intelligence testing/Key contributors Does Giftedness Guarantee Success? Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults for the most part. Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because he became too involved in the lives of his participants, even to the point of interfering on their behalf. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Heredity and Environment and Intelligence
LO 7.8 Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence Heredity and Environment and Intelligence Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases. Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50. The Bell Curve - book that made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 7.9 Language and different elements and structure of language Language Language - a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Elements and Structure of Language
LO 7.9 Language and different elements and structure of language AP Key contributors in cognitive psychology Elements and Structure of Language Grammar - the system of rules governing the structure and use a of language. (Chomsky’s LAD) Syntax - the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences. Morphemes - the smallest units of meaning within a language. Semantics - the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Elements and Structure of Language
LO 7.9 Language and different elements and structure of language Elements and Structure of Language Phonemes - the basic units of sound in language. Pragmatics - aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language and Cognition
LO Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language AP Biological, cognitive, & cultural factors in language Language and Cognition Linguistic relativity hypothesis - the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language. Cognitive universalism – theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language AP Biological, cognitive, & cultural factors in language Animal Language Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas. Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ways to Improve Thinking
LO Ways to improve thinking Ways to Improve Thinking Mental activity that requires creativity and the use of memory abilities, such as working crossword puzzles and reading books, can help to keep the brain fit. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

For More Info Nova episode, “How Smart Can We Get?”
Nova video compilation, “What is Intelligence?”

Cognitive: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

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