1. Classification of Living Things
Taxonomy, Hierarchical Classification, Binomial Nomenclature, Genetic Variation, Relatedness, Phylogeny

2. Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
Two main types of cell types based on differences in size, structure and other characteristics
Fossil evidence
Prokaryotic cells – 3.5 billion years ago
Eukaryotic cells – 1.5 billion years ago
Multicellular organisms – 700 million years ago

3. Hierarchy of Groups Horse is more like a dog then a shark
Horses and dogs are mammals
Horse is more like a shark then an oyster
Vertebrates vs. invertebrates
Each kingdom is broken down into smaller groups called taxon (plural taxa) to assist with categorization
Kingdom is largest down to species

4. Hierarchy of Groups
Plantae--includes all plants
Magnoliophyta--flowering plants
Magnoliopsida--dicots
Magnoliidae--subclass for Magnolia-like plants
Magnoliales--order for Magnolia-like plants
Magnoliaceae--family for Magnolia-like plants
Magnolia--genus includes all Magnolias
grandiflora--specific epithet
The name for a species consists of the genus name and the specific epithet. **Notice that the endings will always tell you what rank you are dealing with, even if you don't recognize the word. For example, the word "Sterculiaceae" could only refer to a family.
As you go up, each category is made of groups of members of the category below it--e.g., there are many types of Magnolia but they all fit into the genus Magnolia. The Magnolias and their relatives are all in the Magnoliaceae. Orders are made up of families, subclasses are made of orders, etc.

5. Binomial Nomenclature
Using two words for each species
Genus and species names used
Canis lupus (wolf); Canis latrans (coyote); Canis familiaris (domestic dog)
Common Names
Problematic because they are not standard
Mountain lion, puma and cougar
P. 395, fig

6. Origins of Diversity
Similar to others in your species but not exactly the same
Diversity between species begins within a species
Certain different characteristics found between two populations in response to their environment may allow new species to develop
First described in 1859 by Charles Darwin in his book: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

7. Genetic Variation Changes in characteristics are produced by:
Random genetic mutations
Introduce variety
Especially important in asexual organisms
Selection for a particular characteristic that increases the organisms chance of survival and breeding in a particular environment

8. Determining Relatedness
Taxonomy involves evolution
A need to determine the evolutionary history of groups of organisms
Comparing different species living today with those that lived in the past
Ways by which scientists determine relatedness
Anatomy, development, biochemistry, DNA

9. Evidence from Anatomy
Classification between major classes can be difficult
Archaeopteryx – 150 million years ago
Fossils not required to find anatomical evidence of evolution
Human arm, horse’s leg, bat’s wing and whale’s flipper
All specialized for what they do but they have the same evolutionary origin - homologous

10. Evidence from Anatomy

11. Further Evidence Development
Relatedness due to appearance can be a dangerous mistake
Larval and adult forms of organisms can be very different and they are the same species!

12. Further Evidence Biochemistry
Comparisons due the molecules from which organisms are made
Comparisons of proteins and hormones
Horseshoe crab is more similar to spiders then to other crabs

13. Further Evidence
DNA
Genes consist of sequences of nucleotide bases in a segment of DNA
Human single strands of DNA are compared to other organisms and the amount of complementary base pairing that occurs indicates relatedness
93% match with the macaque monkey
98% match with the chimpanzee
DNA can also help to determine how long ago species began to diverge from a common ancestor
Mitochondrial DNA – mother to offspring
It mutates at a predictable rate so it provides a molecular clock for measuring rates of evolution

14. Phylogeny “True” evolutionary history of groups of organisms
Common ancestors share characteristics of all organisms that come after in a phylogenetic tree
Smaller differences help to distinguish genus’ from each other

15. Phylogeny Order Artiocactyla Family Bovidae – horns
Even number of hoofed toes on hindfoot; specialized teeth and digestive systems for vegetation
Family Bovidae – horns
Family Cervidae – antlers
Genus Cervus – highly branched antlers
Genus Rangifer – broad, palmate antlers (hand shaped)

16. Phylogenetic Tree