1. Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology
Finishing up Observational Methods and Research Designs & Reading and Writing with APA Style
Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

2. Announcements Reminder: Quiz 3 due Sept 10 (Monday) 11:59 PM
I moved it back to Monday
Exam 1 is 1½ weeks away
Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, & 8
Online CITI ethics training due week 5
This week’s labs:
Download AND read the Assefi & Garry (2003) article before labs
Bring the article to labs
Announcements

3. Conducting Research Observational approaches: Data collection
How do we observe the behaviors of interest?
Types of research designs
What kinds of research questions are you investigating?
E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive?
Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist
Observational
Survey
Case studies
Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them
Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events
Conducting Research

4. Observational Methods
Observational approaches: Data collection
How do we observe the behaviors of interest?
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Survey & interviews
Archival data
Systematic (contrived) observation
Experiments
Observation without manipulation
Direct Observation
Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist
Observational
Survey
Case studies
Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them
Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events
Observational Methods

5. Observational Methods
Archival data: Rather than making direct observations, researcher examines existing public or private records
If the appropriate existing records can be found, no need for data collection
Data set may be more extensive than what you could collect yourself
However, you are limited to the data that exists, may be no way to collect follow-up data
Data may be of observations that you cannot (ethically) collect or manipulate
E.g., murder rates, who marries whom, etc.
Word of caution: be aware of how and where the data were collected
Observational Methods

6. Observation without manipulation
Advantages
Complex patterns of behavior in particular settings
Useful when little is known about the subject of study
May learn about something that never would have thought of looking at experimentally
Disadvantages
Causality is a problem
Threats to internal validity because of lack of control
Every confound is a threat
Lots of alternative explanations
Directionality of the relationship isn’t known
Sometimes the results are not reproducible
Observational Methods

7. Observational Methods
Observational approaches: Data collection
How do we observe the behaviors of interest?
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Survey & interviews
Archival data
Systematic (contrived/analog) observation
Experiments
Observation without manipulation
Direct Observation
Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist
Observational
Survey
Case studies
Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them
Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events
Observational Methods

8. Observational Methods
Systematic (Contrived Observation): The observer sets up the situation that is observed
Observations of one or more specific variables made in a precisely defined setting
Much less global than naturalistic observations
Often takes less time
However, since it isn’t a natural setting, the behavior may be changed
Observational Methods

9. Conducting Research Observational approaches: Data collection
How do we observe the behaviors of interest?
Types of research designs
What kinds of research questions are you investigating?
E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive?
Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist
Observational
Survey
Case studies
Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them
Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events
Conducting Research

10. Types of research designs
Case studies
Intensive study of a small set of individuals and their behaviors
Correlational
Looking for a co-occurrence relationship between two (or more) variables
Experimental
Investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between two (or more) variables through the manipulation of variables
Quasi-experimental
Experimental designs with one or more non-random variables
Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist
Observational
Survey
Case studies
Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them
Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events
Types of research designs

11. Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method
Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method. Typically:
Descriptive (and non-experimental).
Interesting (and often rare) case. Fits well with clinical work.
Phineas Gage (Sci. Am. Show)
Sept 13, 1848 Explosion propelled a railroad tamping rod through his brain
Changed personality
This view has some disadvantages
There may be poor generalizability
There are typically a number of possible confounds and alternative explanations
Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method
Get a very detailed description
Fits well with clinical work
Typically an interesting (and often rare) case
The man who mistook his wife for a hat
NA (fencing accident, amnesia)
HM (surgery for epilepsy, amnesia)
PZ (Korsakoff’s syndrome, amnesia, wrote autobiography a couple of years before the memory loss)
Case Histories
See: Oliver Sacks’ books for some other great examples
interview

12. Correlational Methods
Measure two (or more) variables for each individual and see if the variables co-occur (suggesting that they are related)
Used for:
Predictions
Establishing Reliability and Validity
Evaluating theories
Limitation: Should not make casual claims X Y ? or or
Correlational Methods

13. X Y Causal claims X Y X Y Z We’d like to say: To be able to do this:
causes
We’d like to say:
To be able to do this:
There must be co-variation between the two variables
The causal variable must come first
Directionality problem
Happy people sleep well
Or is it that sleeping well when you are happy?
Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations
Third variable problem X Y or
causes X Y Z
Do Storks bring babies?
Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings
Causal claims

14. Causal claims r = 0.63 Do Storks bring babies? Source: Kronmal (1993)
Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings
Birthrate: To adjust for population size both the number of storks and number of babies was divided by the number of women (per 10,000 women) to form the birth rate and stork rate.
Causal claims

15. Theory 1: Storks deliver babiesX Y
causes
Is killing storks and effective method of controlling birth rates?
Causal claims

16. Theory 2: Underlying third variable
causes X Y Z
Causal claims

17. The experimental method
Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments
Must have a comparison
At least two groups (often more) that get compared
One groups serves as a control for the other group
Variables
Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated
Allows for the testing of causal hypotheses
Dependent variable - the variable that is measured
Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment
Experimental control will be discussed in more detail in a later lecture. It includes keeping the value of a variable constant for all conditions as well as allowing the variable to vary randomly (and hopefully equally across the experimental conditions)
The experimental method

18. The experimental method
Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments
Advantages
Precise control possible
Precise measurement possible
Theory testing possible
Can make causal claims
Disadvantages
Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world”
Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure
The ability to make causal claims comes from the use of control:
Holding variables constant
Selecting the levels of the independent variable
Random assignment to conditions
The experimental method

19. Reading and Writing with Style (APA)
An APA research report
What is it?
How do you read it?
How do you write it?
The ultimate resource for APA style is the 6th edition APA Publication manual
But also check out chpt 8 of your textbook and pgs of your lab manual
Many webpages too (
Tips | common errors | videos
Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

20. Reading and Writing with Style (APA)
An APA research report
What is it?
How do you read it?
How do you write it?
A great book for Psychological writing
University college writing help:
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). The psychologist’s companion: A guide to scientific writing for students and researchers. Cambridge University Press, NY.
Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

21. Misconceptions about Scientific writing
Writing the paper is the routine part of the research process
Forces you to commit to your evidence and conclusions
Just the facts
The facts are just part of the argument that the author is making
What you say is all that is important, how you say it isn’t important
Good writing leads to higher chance of accomplishing your goals
Misconceptions about Scientific writing

22. Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings
Not a creative writing exercise
Presenting an argument based on data and logical reasoning
Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things in your own words.
Avoid digression
Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify a point. Try to do so in the text.
If long digressions, use the appendix
Direct quotes are an easy cop out if you don’t understand something. Don’t cop out. Try to put it into your own words, it forces you to try harder to understand it
Writing style

23. Reading a research article
What are the goals of a research article?
For the reader to:
Know about the research
Understand what was done
Allow further testing & replication
Be convinced by the research (hopefully)
Standardization of research report format
APA style
Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in scientific investigation
Standardization helps with clarity
Read with a critical eye
Write with clarity in mind
Reading a research article

24. Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings
Not a creative writing exercise
Presenting an argument based on data and logical reasoning
Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things in your own words.
Avoid digression
Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify a point. Try to do so in the text.
If long digressions, use the appendix
Direct quotes are an easy cop out if you don’t understand something. Don’t cop out. Try to put it into your own words, it forces you to try harder to understand it
Writing style

25. Goals of a research article
What are the goals of a research article?
For the reader to:
Know about the research
Understand what was done
Allow further testing & replication
Be convinced by the research (hopefully)
Standardization of research report format
APA style
Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in scientific investigation
Standardization helps with clarity
Read with a critical eye
Write with clarity in mind
Goals of a research article

26. Why a structured format?
Our Major goal is Clarity - To ease communication of what was done
Forces a minimal amount of information
Provides a logical framework (for argument)
Provides consistent format within a discipline
People know what to expect
Where to find the information in the article
Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily
Why a structured format?

27. Communicate with clarity
Major goal: Clarity

28. Communicate with clarity
Major goal: Clarity

29. Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity Write for the reader
Think about your audience, what do they already know, what don’t they know
Avoid overstatements
Be conservative in your claims
Emphasize the positive
Focus on how the data supports a theory not just on how it refutes another theory
Major goal: Clarity

30. Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity Avoid Try to be concise
Jargon when possible
Slang and colloquialisms
Sexist and biased language
Try to be concise
Don’t use a whole paragraph when two sentences will do
Longer papers don’t mean better papers
Eliminate unnecessary redundancy
Use simple words (sentences) rather than complicated words (sentences)
Major goal: Clarity

31. Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity
Use concrete words and examples
Check your work!
Read it over, make sure that you say what you mean to say
Use a consistent format (APA style)
It helps your reader understand your arguments and the sources they’re built on.
It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments
Major goal: Clarity

32. APA style: Parts of a research report
Adolescent Depression 1
Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION
Adolescent Depression and Attachment
Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye
Purdue University
Abstract
Adolescent Depression 2
We explored attachment in a family context
by applying family systems principles to the
investigation of multiple attachment relationships
within families. This study focused on maternal
adult attachment with respect to family of origin
experiences. We examined associations between
maternal adult attachment and three levels of
family functioning including individual maternal
depression symptoms, dyadic marital satisfaction
and family unit functioning. We found that attachment
security with respect to particular relationships was
differentially associated with different levels of
family functioning.
Title Page
Body
References
Authors Notes
Footnotes
Tables
Figure Captions
Figures
Adolescent Depression 29
Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial
functioning and depression: Distinguishing among
antecedents, concomitants, and consequences.
Psychological Bulletin, 104.
Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory.
San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April).
Transmission of attachment across three generations.
Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society
for Research in Child Development.
Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989).
Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive.
Infant Mental Health Journal, 3,
Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K.
(1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association
with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
31,
APA style: Parts of a research report

33. The anatomy of a research article
The basic parts of a research article:
Title and authors - gives you a general idea of the topic and specifically who did it
Abstract - short summary of the article
The anatomy of a research article

34. Title Page Running head – will go on each page of published article,
no more than 50 characters
Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION
Adolescent Depression and Attachment
Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye
Topnotch University
Title should be maximally
informative while short
(10 to 12 words recommended)
Order of Authorship sometimes
carries meaning
Affiliation – where the bulk of
the research was done
Published title pages will look a bit different, but you’ll find these pieces of information. Typically the body of the article will begin as well.
Title Page

35. Abstract Abstract: Short summary of entire paper
150 to 250 words
The problem/issue
The method
The results
The major conclusions
Recommendation: write this after you’ve finished the rest of the paper
Good first contact, but remember that it is short on detail
Shows up in PsycInfo
Gets skimmed before reading the article
Abstract

36. Hourglass shape
Start broad
Background
Literature Review
Body

37. Body Hourglass shape Narrow focus Statement of purpose
Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)
Body

38. Hourglass shape
Most focused
- Methods
- Results
Body

39. Hourglass shape
Broaden
Discussion
Conclusions
Implications
Body

40. Body Introduction - gives you the background that you need
Issue and Background
What is it? Why is it interesting/important?
Literature Review
What has been done? What theories are out there?
Statement of purpose
What are you going to do and why?
Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)
What do you predict will happen in your research?
Body

41. Body Introduction - gives you the background that you need
Reading checklist
1) What is the author's goal?
2) What are the hypotheses?
3) If you had designed the study, how would YOU have done it?
Writing checklist
Be cohesive
Be relevant (why are the reviewed studies relevant?)
Work on the transitions (make the flow logical)
Body

42. Body The basic parts of a research article :
Method - tells the reader exactly what was done
Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the study.
Subsections:
Participants - who were the data collected from
How many, where they were selected from, any special selection requirements, details about those who didn’t complete the experiment
Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study
Design
Suggested if you have a complex experimental design, often combined with Materials section
Procedure
What did each participant do? Other details, including the operational levels of your IV(s) and DV(s), counterbalancing, etc.
Body

43. Body The basic parts of a research article :
Method - tells the reader exactly what was done
Reading checklist
1 a) Is your method better than theirs?
b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses?
c) What are the independent, dependent, and control variables?
2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect?
Writing checklist
Is it clear why the procedures were selected?
Are any assumptions explicit and defended?
Is the level of detail sufficient for replication?
Body

44. Body Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here)
Verbal statement of results
Tables and figures
These get referred to in the text, but actually get put into their own sections at the end of the manuscript
Statistical Outcomes
Means, standard deviations, t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, etc.
Body

45. Body Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here)
Reading checklist
1) Did the author get unexpected results?
2 a) How does the author interpret the results?
b) How would YOU interpret the results?
c) What implications would YOU draw from these results?
Writing checklist
Is it clear how the hypotheses are tested by the analyses?
Would a graph or table help clarify the results?
What questions might the reader still have, and how could I answer them in this section?
Body

46. Body Discussion (interpret the results)
Relationship between purpose and results
Theoretical (or methodological) contribution
Implications
Future directions (optional)
Reading checklist
1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data?
b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions?
Writing checklist
Have you stated your most convincing argument?
Do the conclusions follow straightforwardly from the results?
Body

47. The rest When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up!
References
Author’s name
Year
Title of work
Publication information
Journal
Issue
Pages
Adolescent Depression 29
References
Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial
functioning and depression: Distinguishing among
antecedents, concomitants, and consequences.
Psychological Bulletin, 104.
Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory.
San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April).
Transmission of attachment across three generations.
Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society
for Research in Child Development.
Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989).
Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive.
Infant Mental Health Journal, 3,
Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K.
(1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association
with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
31,
When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up!
The rest

48. Figures and tables These are used to supplement the text.
To make a point clearer for the reader.
Typically used for:
The design
Examples of stimuli
Patterns of results
Figures and tables

49. Checklist - things to watch for
Clarity
Acknowledge the work of others (avoid plagiarism)
Active vs. passive voice
Active: Summers and Jordan (2009) hypothesized that speakers use to much passive voice
Passive: It was hypothesized by Summers and Jordan (2009) that speakers use to much passive voice
Checklist - things to watch for

50. Checklist - things to watch for
Avoid biased language
APA guidelines:
Accurate descriptions of individuals (e.g., Asian vs. Korean)
Be sensitive to labels (e.g., “Oriental”)
Appropriate use of headings
Correct citing and references
Good grammar
APA style checklist
Checklist - things to watch for