1. Li, Jie (jieli@bgsu.edu) Xi’an International Studies University
An Investigation into the Pedagogies Applied to Writing Classrooms for the English Majors and a Proposal for Teacher Development
Li, Jie
Xi’an International Studies University

2. Why teacher development?
Writing being a social and academic necessity, and an economic power
English majors unable to write well
Philosophies and pedagogies: dated or not appropriate

3. Research on composition in China: texts, student performance (e. g
Research on composition in China: texts, student performance (e.g.TEM-4, TEM-8)
Williams (2003):“Focusing on methods without an understanding of the historical and theoretical foundations of rhetoric is shortsighted” (p.3)
Pedagogical foundation: education linguistics, and psychology, and technology.

4. Research methods
Literature: articles on English writing from the four conferences held in China from
Class observation
Experiment: writing classes in regular classroom and in the digital environment
Questionnaire
Interviews: writing teachers and specialists

5. Findings: class observation
Writing classes: mostly teacher-centered, product-based, exam-oriented
Procedure: rules for writing, samples, writing after class, teacher grading and comments
Emphasis: product, not process
Rhetoric: no analysis of audience awareness, purpose, style, tone

6. Findings: class observation
Research (writing to learn): not stressed, unfamiliar with documentation format, academic honesty hard to put into practice
Comments given by instructors: just weaknesses; some not justified
Rhetoric: no analysis of audience awareness, purpose, style, tone

7. Findings: interview Heavy workload No pre-training before teaching
Students failing to follow the rules, don’t correct errors.
TEM-4/8: very influential, affecting daily instruction
Assessment by the end of the term: timed essay test

8. Findings: questionnaire
Writing: very difficult
Help not available when needed
Class in the computer lab: good, information easily available, feedback, collaboration
Drawbacks in the lab: students out of control, ing, chatting online, etc.

9. What’s rhetoric?
Herrick (2001): “the art of employing symbols effectively” (p. 7)
George Kennedy: “a system of signs, including language”, such as sound, images, graphics, etc.

10. Role of rhetoric in comp. studies
Its value is that helps writers with planning,
adapting to an audience, shaping human motives, responding to a situation.

11. How to acquire rhetoric?
Rhetoric could be acquired through “systematic study and intentional practice of effective symbolic expression” (Herrick, 2001).

12. Major rhetorical schools and their features
Current-traditional rhetoric: structure
New rhetoric: process
Romantic rhetoric: self-expression
Writing across the curriculum: different conditions; content
Postmodern rhetoric: “liberation” from theories; cultural studies

13. Discussion Problem with teachers
Lack of linguistic tolerance: no one standard language
Lack of awareness of students’ interests
Lack of teacher accountability
Lack of updated professional training

14. Discussion Problem with teaching philosophy
Current-traditional rhetoric: emphasis on structure, no real practical value
George Hillocks (1986): “the current-traditional approach is not very effective in teaching students how to write. Nevertheless, it is the most influential and widely used approach to teaching writing today.”

15. Neglect of the social function of writing
Writing being a private instead of a public action.
Bottom-up methodology: part of whole essay

16. CONTROL EFFECTS George Hillock (1988)
Discussion
Insufficient pedagogical strategies
MODE OF INSTRUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL/
CONTROL EFFECTS George Hillock (1988)
Natural process
Individualized
Presentational
Environmental

17. Discussion Insufficient knowledge of rhetorical history and pedagogies
Unable to teach with flexibility or with a combination of approaches
Apposition to computer and other technologies in the writing classroom, because of extra work

18. Discussion
Twelve main pedagogies in A Guide to Composition Pedagogies by Gary Tate, et al
1. process expressive rhetorical
4. collaborative 5. cultural studies and composition critical

19. 7. feminist
8. community-service
9. WAC
10. basic writing
11. technology
12. writing center

20. Discussion Unscientific administration of the writing course
No WAC (writing across the curriculum)
Heavy workload
Large student population
Outcomes not in the first priority
Improper assessment

21. Proposals and conclusion
Core of writing class
Teach critical thinking ability
Try different or a combination of pedagogies in writing classrooms
Use technology to facilitate writing process: a hybrid class
Require students to produce multiple drafts and revise according to the feedback
Provide individualized instruction or tutoring, such as the Writing Center practice.

22. Proposal and conclusion
Encourage collaboration
Provide opportunities for students to write for different audiences
Stress the role of reading and research
Teach writing through writing, and try to involve students in staged writing activities
Try workshop-based writing classes

23. Lindemanne in A Rhetoric for Writing Teachers (1995):
Writing teachers should “help students gain confidence in their ability to use the code [the language used in compositions] effectively, perhaps even to find pleasure in manipulating the symbols” (p. 17).

24. References
Covino, W. A. (2001). Rhetorical pedagogy. In G. Tate, A. Rupiper & K. Schick (Ed.),
A Guide to Composition Pedagogies (pp.36-53).New York: Oxford University Press.
Herrick, J. A. (2001). The history and theory of rhetoric. (2nd ed.) Allognd Baca
Kinloch, V. F. (2005). Revisiting the promise of Student’s Right to Their Own
Language. College Composition and Communication. September 57,
Lindemann, E. (1995). A rhetoric for writing teachers. (3rd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press.

25. References
Moran, C. (2001). Technology and the teaching of writing. In G. Tate, A. Rupiper &
K. Schick (Ed.), A Guide to Composition Pedagogies (pp ). New York: Oxford University Press.
Williams, J. D. (2003). Preparing to teach writing: Reseuarch, theory, and practice.3rd ed. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Professional development: Planning for success. Retrieved 4 May 2007 from
Zemelman, S., & Daniels, H. (1988). A Community of writers: Teaching writing in the junior and senior high school. Heinemann: Portsmouth.