1. Learning
Classical and Operant Conditioning, Cognitive-Social Learning, Neuroscience and Evolution

2. Key Terms
Learning—A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental process as a result of practice or experience
Conditioning—Learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.

3. Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning—Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) (also known as respondent or Pavlovian conditioning).

4. Unconditioned Stimulus-Response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)—Stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)—Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that occurs without previous conditioning.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)—A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

5. Conditioned Stimulus-Response
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)—Previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), now causes a conditioned response (CR).
Conditioned Response (CR)—Learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

6. Ivan Pavlov
Although his name is most often associated with psychology and classical conditioning, he won a Nobel Prize as a physiologist for his study of the role of saliva in digestion.
Pavlov’s discovery and pursuit of classical conditioning came as he began to think critically about an observation made which was really an interference with his primary research.

7. John B. Watson
In what would now be considered an unethical experiment, Watson discovered that emotional responses can also be conditioned through classical means.
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)—A classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Watson’s experiment led to understanding of phobias. He also founded the school of psychology known as Behaviorism.

8. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization—Learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuli
Stimulus Discrimination—Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli

9. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction—Gradual weakening, or suppression of a previously conditioned response (CR).
Spontaneous Recovery—Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR).
Higher-Order Conditioning—A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS).

10. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Prejudice—the Clark Study in the 1930’s and Powell-Hopson & Hopson in the 1980’s illustrate how prejudice can be classically conditioned through repeated pairings of characteristics or traits with one group of people.

11. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Phobias—through the application of Watson’s experiment and understanding of conditioned emotional responses (CER), we can understand irrational fears and how to treat them.
Medical Treatments—classical conditioning can be used to treat alcohol-dependent patients by forming negative associations or to increase success of treatment by forming positive associations

12. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Advertising—John B. Watson proved that, if you lose your job as a psychologist for unethical behavior, you can always be welcomed into the field of advertising 
Advertising pairs neutral stimuli (the product) with positive conditioned stimuli (models, sex, fun)
The reverse can also be true when creating negative associations such as in political advertising

13. Operant Conditioning
Learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences (also known as instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning)
The organism performs a behavior that produces an effect on the environment—known as reinforcements
Reinforcement strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur

14. Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning the organism’s response is active and voluntary vs. classical conditioning where the response is passive and involuntary.
Edward Thorndike—
The Law of Effect—the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence

15. B. F. Skinner
Skinner emphasized external, observable behavior. We can only know if something is a reinforcement or punishment after the fact.
He developed the Skinner Box in which an animal was trained to push a lever to receive a food pellet.
From this basic apparatus, Skinner was able to demonstrate a number of operant conditioning principles.

16. Principles of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement—Primary and Secondary
Primary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the probability of a response because they satisfy a biological need, such as food, water, and sex.
Secondary reinforcers—stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their learned value, such as money and material possessions

17. Principles of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement—positive and negative
Positive reinforcement—adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur
Negative reinforcement—taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur
Premack principle—using a naturally occurring high-frequency response will reinforce and increase low-frequency responses.

18. Principles of Operant Conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement—Every correct response is reinforced
Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement—some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced

19. Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs after a fixed (predetermined) number of responses.
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies
Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs after a fixed (predetermined) time has elapsed
Variable Interval (VI) Schedule—Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies

20. Principles of Operant Conditioning
Shaping—Reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response
Punishment—
Positive punishment—adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur
Negative punishment—taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur

21. Side Effects of Punishment
Increased aggression
Passive aggression
Avoidance behavior
Modeling
Temporary suppression
Learned helplessness

22. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Prejudice—prejudice and discrimination can be learned through positive reinforcement (positive attention, acceptance by others, increase of self-esteem)—stimulus generalization may also play a part as people may have had a punishing experience with a member of a group.

23. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Biofeedback—a bodily function (such as blood pressure, or heart rate) is recorded and the information is fed back to an organism to increase voluntary control over the bodily function
Positive reinforcement (feedback is added as a way to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated)
Secondary reinforcer (the value we place on health)
Shaping (the information through data helps the organism approximate the desired outcome)

24. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Superstition
Behaviors get accidentally reinforced such that the organism associates the reinforcement with the behavior.
Can also become conditioned through partial schedules of reinforcement.

25. Cognitive-Social Learning
Cognitive-Social Theory emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior.
Insight—sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution.
Cognitive Map—a mental image of a three-dimensional space that an organism has navigated.

26. Cognitive-Social Learning
Latent Learning—hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs.
Observational Learning—Learning new behavior or information by watching others (also known as social learning or modeling)

27. Neuroscience and Evolution
Changes in biochemistry
The Brain—learning and memory create new synaptic connections and changes in brain structures

28. Evolution
Biological Preparedness—Built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses
Instinctive Drift—Conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response patterns