1. ECOLOGY

2. Syllabus You are required only to study any one ecosystem,
and to know five animals
and five plants from your ecosystem.

3. Organism Distribution

4. Plants / Flora Grasses Clover Buttercups Dandelions Daisies Nettles
Poppies
Thistles
Dock
Primrose
Bluebell

5. Animals / Fauna H = herbivore, C = carnivore, O = omnivore,
D = detritus feeder (detritus is dead and decomposing organisms)
Earthworms (D) Caterpillars (H) Rabbits (H) Snails (H) Ladybirds (C) Badgers (O)
Slugs (H) Bees (H) Foxes (C) Spiders (C) Wasps (H, C) Hedgehogs (O)
Beetles (C, H, O) Butterflies (H) Thrushes (C) Aphids (H) Moths (H) Blackbirds (O)

6. The study of an ecosystem involves studying a number of sample habitats, as follows:
Mapping
identifying plants and animals
estimating the numbers of plants and animals
measuring the environmental (abiotic) factors
presenting the information

7. What to observe in an Ecosystem
Form a general overview of the area to be studied: Name the types of habitat within the ecosystem as each habitat will have its own populations of organisms which interact with each other and with the non-living environment.

8. Habitats within the Woodland Habitat:
Soil,
ditch,
oak aerial system,
hedgerow,
stone wall,
oak root system.
Page 1 of Ecology Report

9. Sketch of Ecosystem
Mark off the sample area by using poles with string or flags or by other visible markers
Draw a sketch of Ecosystem including features such as a road, wall, path, trees, bushes etc
Page 3 of Ecology Report

10. ecosystem-video

11. Qualitative survey
A study determining the types of plants or organisms presence/absence in a habitat.

12. Carry out a qualitative study and note the diversity of flora and fauna in the ecosystem.
Use an identification Key to identify five animals and five plants
Note the habitat in which each organism was found.
Note a structural or behavioural adaptation of the organism.
Repeat this procedure to identify any five plants
Page 4 of Ecology Report

14. Keys A key is used to identify and name organisms
It consists of pairs of questions to which you answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Continue until a name is reached which matches your specimen

15. ECOSYSTEM
FAUNA
FLORA
Woodland
Owl, woodlouse, deer, centipede.
Arum lily, oak tree, ivy, holly, moss
Grassland
Slug, snail, earthworm, field mouse, spider.
Daisy, grass, dandelion, clover, plantain
Hedgerow
Butterfly, wren, rabbit, hover fly, hedgehog
Herb Robert, blackthorn, cow parsley, goose grass, hawthorn.

16. Qualitative V’s Quantitative study
A qualitative study records the presence or absence of species.
A quantitative study records the number of each species.

17. Errors may arise in the study of an ecosystem in the following ways:
Human Error - mistakes may be made in judgment and recording
Conditions changing in the ecosystem over time
Accidental discoveries may be made
Sample size - the habitats studied may not accurately reflect the overall ecosystem

18. Measure Abiotic Factors Page 9 of Report

19. Abiotic and biotic factors

20. Observe the influential abiotic factors i.e.
if it is exposed, sheltered, flat, on a slope, what direction does it face, influence of wind direction, intensity, drainage, etc.
What is the influence of the non-living(abiotic) components on the flora and fauna of the ecosystem?
Page 9 of Report

21. Choice of Habitat
Relationship between an organism’s suitability to its habitat and abiotic factors to include a measurement of any three abiotic factors: pH
Temperature (air and ground or aquatic)
Light intensity
Air current
Mineral content
Percentage air in soil
Percentage water in soil
Percentage humus
Degree of exposure
Slope

22. Light Intensity – Light meter
Used to measure the light intensity in units called lux.
Grasses grow better at higher light intensities

23. Soil pH – pH Meter
Soil pH will favour some plants and therefore some animals

24. Wind speed - Anemometer

25. Rainfall – Rainfall gauge is used to measure the amount of rainfall in mm.

26. Air Temperature - Thermometer
Air temperature differences in different parts of the grassland will affect how well the plants (and animals) grow

27. Adaptations of Organisms to their Environment
Need to know structural, competitive or behavioural adaptation by organisms
Note an adaptation feature by any organism in your selected ecosystem

28. An adaptation is a process, change, method, characteristic or feature that an organism or species possesses, develops or evolves that suits/adjusts the organism to its environment to increase its chances of survival and reduce competition.
Examples:
Ladybird warning colouration
Field mice are nocturnal: predator avoidance.
Page 11 of Report

29. Provides camouflage and protects animals from predators e.g. woodlice
Adaptation
Benefit
Beak
Shape adapted to method of feeding e.g. pointed beak suitable for probing the ground for earthworms e.g. blackbird
Slimy mucus
Prevents e.g. snails, earthworms, etc. from drying out as it travels across dry terrain
Body colour
Provides camouflage and protects animals from predators e.g. woodlice
Sharp claws
For digging e.g. badger
Tail
Aids balance e.g. Squirrel on tree tops
Bright body colour
Deters predators e.g. ladybird (also releases toxic fluids to deter predators)

30. Hairy skin and fur
Traps a layer of air – insulation
Long canine teeth
Kill prey and tear flesh
Speed of predator
Usually faster than its prey
Long/big ears
Good hearing to detect predator
Nocturnal
Predator avoidance e.g. field mice

31. Identify and use various apparatus required for collection methods in an ecological study
Collection apparatus
Name:
How used:
Type of organism collected:
Page 12 of Report

32. Pooter Used for picking up very small animals e.g. spiders & insects.
Suck through mouthpiece (end of which is covered with muslin) and the animal is taken into jar through the hose.

33. Beating tray
This is a white tray, cotton sheet or large sheet of white paper.
It is placed under a bush or tree branch.
The tree branch is shaken suddenly and vigorously.
Insects and other invertebrates fall onto the tray.

34. Pitfall Trap
Jam jar buried in ground and covered with raised flat stone.
Used to collect small animals that walk along the surface of the ground
e.g. beetles, spiders centipedes, woodlice, beetles, etc.

35. Sweep Net
Used to collect e.g. insects & spiders from tall grass

36. Tullgren Funnel
Used to collect small animals from leaf litter and soil samples e.g. worms, spiders by heating the soil sample from a lamp above causing the animals to move down out of the soil by and fall through a wire gauze into a beaker.

37. Mammal Trap
Used to collect small mammals
e.g. mice, voles, etc.

38. Cryptozoic trap A piece of wood or stone which is left on the ground.
After a suitable interval, animals such as slugs, woodlice, centipedes and millipedes will be found underneath.

39. Collection Methods Method Used for collecting Cryptozoic
Small nocturnal animals
e.g. slugs, woodlice
Pitfall
Small animals that walk along
the surface of the ground
e.g. beetles, spiders
Tullgren funnel
Small animals from leaf litter and
soil samples e.g. worms, spiders
Pooter
Insects and spiders from the surface
of leaves and leaf litter
Sweep
Insects from long grass and vegetation
Mammal trap
Small mammals e.g. mice , shrew

40. Look for inter-relationships between the various living organisms in the ecosystem
Explain and identify the role of the organism in energy transfers.
Construct
food chains
A food web
A pyramid of numbers
Page 10 of Report

41. Quantitative survey
Quantitative Study provides a record of the numbers of plants and animals present in a sample area of the selected ecosystem

42. Quantitative study Quantitative studies can be either:
Subjective estimates (i.e. a personal judgement is made as to the number)
Objective estimates (i.e. an independent method of calculating numbers is used)
Subjective methods are not recommended,
because they depend on individual judgements, which may vary from person to person.

43. A quantative study of plants in a habitat involves using:
quadrats, which are examined for:
(a) Percentage cover of plants or stationary animals.
(b) Frequency
transects:
(a) Line transect (rope marked at intervals – record what touches the line).
(b) Belt transect (equivalent to quadrats taken in a line – methods used are the same as for quadrats).

44. A Quadrat Usually square shaped
A frame that forms a known area usually
0.5m X 0.5m = 0.25m2
Used for random sampling of plants or some slow moving animals

45. Gridded Quadrat Page 6 of Report

46. 1. Determining the Percentage Cover of Sedentary Species – Subjective Estimate
Measured using a quadrat
The area of quadrat covered by each species (five flora) of interest is estimated as a percentage of the total quadrat area – not very accurate.

47. Percentage Cover procedure
Throw a pencil at random
Place a quadrat on the spot
Determine the approximate % of the area of the quadrat that is covered by a plant species
Repeat for 10 throws
Results are expressed as a percentage of the total quadrat area
Tabulate results
Page 6 of Report
Go through each step and explain

48. 2. Determining the Percentage Cover of Sedentary Species – Objective Estimate
Measured using a grid quadrat the total number of squares (25) is divided by the number of squares (top and right sides only) touched by the flora of interest (e.g. 10)
Much more accurate.

49. Percentage Cover procedure
Throw a pencil at random
Place a grid quadrat on the spot
Record the number of plants touching the top and right sides of grid quadrat / each sampling point
Repeat for 10 throws
Tabulate results
Page 6 of Report
Go through each step and explain

51. Quantitative % cover study of plants
Complete table by recording the no of hits scored by each plant touched by the needle at each sampling point
Record total hits scored by each plant
Record total no of sampling points for the 10 quadrat throws i.e.250
Calculate % cover by using formula
Graph ( Use bar graph )
Next slide has procedure which can be displayed on screen during activity

52. Tabulation of results Auto Calculations
Completed table will look something like this:
This has been done on Excel a spreadsheet programme, where formulae are entered to compute the Total hits and the % Cover
Graph can be drawn ( double click to show graph )
Auto
Calculations

53. Plot Graph X axis = Organisms Y axis = % Frequency Page 5 of Report
Give time to draw graph

55. Frequency
The probability of finding a named plant within the sample area in a number of quadrats
May be expressed as a percent of the total number of quadrats sampled
This method is quick and percentages of organisms can be calculated easily
The more throws and frequency checks you do, the more accurate your end-frequency percentage results will be
Definition from Teacher Guidelines P 22

56. Percentage Frequency Procedure
Throw the quadrat randomly
Record the presence or absence of a named organism within each quadrat
Repeat for 10 throws
Tabulate results
Page 8 of Report

57. A quantitative study of plants
Frequency
Explain how to fill in data on table:
For example daisy.
Record presence (Y) or absence ( N) for each quadrat throw
Fill in Total no ( by adding the total number of boxes containing daisy ( Y) )
Express as Frequency ( ratio) i.e. ( Total /10)
% Frequency: No. quadrats containing plant/ No. quadrats thrown
Next slide shows procedure which can be left on screen
If percentage is required multiply frequency by 100

58. Tabulation of results Auto Calculations
Completed table will look something like this:
This has been done on Excel, a spreadsheet programme, where formulae are entered to compute the Frequency and the % Frequency
Graph can be drawn ( Click and a completed graph will appear )
Will give detailed instructions on how to use excel spreadsheet later

59. Conduct a Quantitative Survey of Plants and measure 3 abiotic factors
Method: Line Transect
Put a rope straight across the habitat
Walk beside the line and record the name of each plant touching the line at a certain point.
Repeat all along the length of the line transect.
Record 3 abiotic factors at each point
Combine the results to establish plant distribution.
Relate the distribution to the variation of the environmental factors.

61. To conduct a quantitative study of organisms along a belt transect
Record % cover or number of a named organism in each quadrat along the transect
Position of quadrat on belt transect
Organism Name
% Cover = No. of hits  100
No. of points on quadrat

62. Capture field mice using small mammal traps.
Conduct a Quantitative Survey of fast moving Animals, e.g. fieldmouse population
Day 1
Capture field mice using small mammal traps.
Record the number of captured mice e.g. 20.
Mark each with a dab of red paint on the belly surface.
Release each at their capture site.
Allow time for the mice to readjust to normal conditions.

63. Day 2
Capture field mice as before.
Record the number captured e.g. 18.
Record the number of recaptures (marked mice) e.g. 6.
Return the mice to the habitat at their capture site.

64. the capture–recapture method, i.e.
Number =
C 1st × C 2nd _____________
M 2nd

65. Calculation: 
Population = Day 1 Captures x Day 2 Captures         Number of Recaptures
= 20 x 18         6
= 60 mice

66. Analysis Prepare a brief report of the results obtained Identify possible sources of error in such a study.

67. Errors During Fieldwork
Bias: purposely choosing sample sites to get ‘good results’ or avoid work.
Too Few Sample Sites: may not give accurate representative results.
Surveyor Variation: students vary in ability, commitment and interest.
Equipment Quality: measurement and trapping success will be affected.

68. 5. Changing Nature: results may depend on the time of day, season or year. 6. Chance: cannot survey every square centimeter so even with many sites some species may be missed. 7. Improper Trapping Techniques: all evasive species may not be captured and/or insufficient numbers captured in follow up surveying.