1. Cultural Change 1450-1750: Religion and Science
Objectives:
To explore the roots of tension between science and religion
To examine the European Reformation movements and significance
To examine the spread of Christianity around the world
To look at and explore religious change in China, India, and Islam
To explore why the Scientific Revolution occurred in Europe and its limited scope elsewhere
To explore the implications of the Scientific Revolution in world societies in the Early Modern Era

2. Beginnings
Christianity today is no longer a European religion. Fully 60% of Christians live outside of Europe and English North America
During the early modern two developments shaped our world today:
A. Christianity became a global religion
B. The Scientific Revolution created new approaches to understanding the world
Europeans were central actors in these but not alone
People who converted helped to shape Christianity
Science received different receptions around the globe

3. Globalizing Christianity
In 1500 limited mostly to Europe with a few exceptions: Ethiopia, some Copts in Egypt, Nestorians in Central Asia
Roman Catholics vs. Orthodox in Europe
Defensive against Islam: Loss of Constantinople to Turks in 1453, Ottomans against Austria to 1683

4. Reformation in Europe from 1517
Various forces were pushing for reformation of Catholic Church by (concerns over papal power, indulgences, education of priests)
In 1517 Martin Luther posted 95 Essays on his church door in Wittenberg Germany where he was the priest
Asked for debate about certain practices and abuses in the church
Luther’s protest was also deeply grounded in theological issues (core beliefs of the church like sacraments, how are people saved)
Questioned in particular the special position of the clerical hierarchy (especially the Pope) and certain doctrines of the church

5. Schism: Division of the Church
Luther’s questions resulted in many changes in Christianity in Europe
Luther was excommunicated and began to form his own doctrines he felt reflected “true” Christianity
Political, social, and economic tensions of the time fed the reformation
Some monarchs used Luther to justify independence from the Pope
Gave new religious legitimacy to middle classes through freeing of church from hierarchy
Commoners used reformation to protest against the social order
Peasants Revolt in Germany 1520’s

6. Women in the Reformation
Although many women were attracted to “Protestantism” as the new sects were known, the reformation did not really give them greater roles in society or in the church
Protestants ended veneration of Mary and the saints including the female saints
Closed convents and did away with nuns, closing off an alternative to marriage especially for upper class women
Only Quakers gave women official roles in the church
Education of women in Protestant countries became the norm since reading of the Bible was necessary for salvation, and women educated most children at home

7. Other Repercussions
The printing press helped to spread the ideas and beliefs of the reformers rapidly
As the reformation spread, it split into many various groups competing with each other (there are over 1500 Protestant sects in the US today)
Religious disunity created more volatility in Europe’s political systems
Religious Wars: in Holy Roman Empire, French Wars of Religion , the Thirty Years War throughout Central Europe and Scandinavia. By 1650 political issues had superseded religious ones.

8. The Counter Reformation
Catholics had to respond in some way to the Reformation. Obviously some things HAD to be changed.
Council of Trent 1545:
Corrected many abuses such as indulgences and Papal greed
Emphasized education of priests in religious doctrine (which had not occurred before) and more closely supervised them. Enforced cleric celibacy
Focus on individual piety and spirituality to counter reformed churches on this. Also Inquisition to crack down on dissidents in the Church
Creation of new religious orders to spread “reformed” Catholicism such as the Jesuits

9. Ideological Repercussions
Throughout Europe, the reformation encouraged skepticism toward established ways of doing things in politics, religion, social standing, and economics
Individualism in religion became more acceptable rather than communal religious belief. Toleration of others became more normal
Over time, this habit of independent thought led to skepticism about all types of revealed religion. Revealed means divinely inspired.
Led to the development of non religious philosophy

10. Expansion into the world
Christianity was one motivator for European expansion into the world
All Europeans used spreading Christianity as a reason for expansion regardless of whether this was the actual practice
Iberians used expansion as a form of crusade continuing their tradition of liberating areas from Islam or paganism. Most Europeans combined some religious impetus with self interest
English, French, and Dutch explorers were less likely to cite religious motives when expanding spheres of influence, but did some work of conversion of native peoples

11. Imperialism and conversion
Settlers and traders brought their religion with them and whether they were active in spreading it or not, their religious ideas informed their societies and had effects on the native peoples
Missionaries were also successful in places in converting many native peoples to Christianity. Primarily Catholic
Missionaries were most successful in Spanish America and the Philippines

12. Conversion and Syncretism in Spanish America
Population collapse, conquest, and European settlement made native peoples receptive to Christianity as the religion of the conquerors.
Europeans claimed exclusive religious truth, tried to destroy native religions rather than to accommodate them
Some campaigns to destroy the old religions were undertaken. Most of the scriptures of the old religions were destroyed.
Some resistance to conversion occurred occasionally breaking into rebellion against the priests. (New Mexico in 1680 is an example.) But for the most part the process was more organic (was a process that occurred naturally as a result of conquest)

13. Conversion and Syncretism in Spanish America
More commonly a blending of religious traditions took place
Local gods remained influential frequently taking on aspects of Christian saints (Virgen de Guadalupe is an example: the Aztec corn goddess and the Virgin Mary)
The “new” Christianity took on the rhythms of pre-colonial life, that is ceremonies and rituals became focused on those things that the natives held to be important, particularly in the countryside
Some church leaders of the laity (parish members) were drawn from upper social ranks of the native peoples who essentially carried on the roles of native priests in society (without human sacrifice of course)
Many old rituals became Christianized and new saints and miracles were reported and became part of Latin American cultural traditions

14. Jesuits in China: Comparing to Latin America
Christianity in China
Reached China during Ming and Qing dynasties
Needed Chinese government permission to operate
Could not go in and force conversion of Chinese as in America
Jesuit Order particularly used in China:targeted Chinese elites
No mass conversions in China:most elites remained Confucian
However, appreciated the Jesuits mathematical, astronomical, technological, and cartographical skills, things the Chinese valued

15. China and Christianity to 1750
About 250,000 Chinese became Christians between 1550 and 1800
Christianity did not offer much that China needed
Christianity was an “exclusive” religion which could not embrace much of Chinese culture
Efforts of Jesuits to blend or synthesize Chinese beliefs with Christianity were stopped by the papacy and other missionaries by the early 1700’s effectively stopping any progress towards conversion in China until the late 19th century.