1. Respiratory System
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the muscle tissues
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and blood
The breathing of air into and out of the lungs

3. Mechanics of Breathing
Inspiration:
External intercostals muscles contract during inspiration
Diaphragm contracts (downwards and flattens)
This pulls the rib cage upwards and outwards
These actions cause the thoracic cavity size to increase
This decreases the pressure inside the thoracic cavity
Gases move from areas of high pressure to low pressure areas
Therefore oxygen moves from the atmosphere (higher pressure) into the lungs (now low in pressure)
During exercise, a more forceful inspiration is required so extra muscles are involved in this process – sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor

4. Expiration
Usually a passive process
As the intercostals muscles relax the rib cage moves downwards
The diaphragm relaxes and returns to its dome shape
This decreases the size of the thoracic cavity
This causes the pressure to increase in the thoracic cavity (smaller volume)
Therefore gases move out of the lungs (high pressure) into the atmosphere (lower pressure)
During exercise breathing rate is increased, expiration is aided by the internal intercostal muscles and the abdominal muscles,
This pulls the rib cage down more quickly and with greater force

7. Gaseous Exchange Key Terms:
Gaseous Exchange – the process of exchanging O2 and CO2
Partial Pressure - the pressure a gas exerts in a mixture of gases
Diffusion - The movement of gases from areas of higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure
Diffusion Gradient - The difference between high and low pressure of gases. The bigger the gradient the greater the diffusion.

8. External Respiration
Involves the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli of the lungs and capillaries surrounding the alveoli.
The aim of external respiration is to oxygenate the blood returning from the tissues
As blood circulates through the capillaries surrounding the alveoli oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is dropped off to be expired

9. Internal Respiration
Involves the movement of O2 and CO2 between the capillaries surrounding the muscles and the muscle tissues
The aim of internal respiration is to oxygenate the muscles and collect CO2 to return it to the alveoli
These processes can only happen if a diffusion gradient is present.

10. External and Internal Respiration Showing Changes in O2 and CO2

11. Oxygen-Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve
Shows us how much haemoglobin is saturated with oxygen
Saturated – when haemoglobin is loaded with oxygen
Dissociation – where oxygen is unloaded from the haemoglobin
The higher the partial pressure of oxygen, the higher percentage of oxygen saturation to haemoglobin

13. Oxygen associates with haemoglobin at the lungs and dissociates at the muscles (because PP of O2 is high at lungs and low at muscles)
During exercise a greater amount of dissociation of O2 at the muscles is required, therefore less saturation at the muscles has to occur
Four factors happen in our bodies during exercise to allow this to occur

14. Factors Affecting the saturation of oxygen to haemoglobin
Increase in temperature – in the blood and muscles during exercise
Decrease in PP of O2 – within the muscles during exercise, therefore creating a greater diffusion gradient
Increase in PP of CO2 – therefore causing a greater CO2 diffusion gradient
Increase in acidity – lowering the pH of the blood through production of lactic acid (more hydrogen ions produced). This is known as the BOHR SHIFT
All four of these factors (which occur during exercise) increases the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin, which increases the supply of oxygen to the working muscles and therefore delays fatigue.

16. Exam Style Question:
What happens to the oxygen-Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve during exercise? (6 marks)
It shifts to the right
Because during exercise there is an increase in blood/muscle temperature
Decrease in PP of O2 in the muscles
Increase in PP of CO2 in muscles
Increase in acidity (more lactic acid)
Known as Bohr Effect/Shift

17. Myoglobin Has a higher affinity for O2 than haemoglobin
Therefore acts as a store of O2
Even at very low partial pressures of 02 (the muscles when exercising) it remains saturated
This means that myoglobin still has O2 available to supply the working muscles.

18. Respiratory Adaptations to Training
Reduction in breathing rate during sub-maximal exercise,
System is more efficient therefore less
breaths required,
No changes in lung volumes except
Vital capacity – amount of air that can be forcibly expired after maximal inspiration – increases slightly, largely due to stronger respiratory muscles
Therefore spirometer traces are not good predictors of training or fitness because lung size/volume do not determine fitness (these are largely genetic and not adapted due to training)

19. Gaseous exchange becomes efficient
External Respiration - increased capilliarisation surrounding alveoli – more opportunity for gaseous exchange to occur, more O2 enters the blood
Internal Respiration – increase in myoglobin within the muscles (this carries O2 to mitochondria), therefore leading to improved efficiency of energy production.

21. Describe the chemical, physical and neural changes that cause a change in our breathing rate.
Increase in CO2, increase in acidity
Detected by chemoreceptors
Physical –
Movement of muscles and joints
Detected by proprioreceptors
Also stretch receptors in lungs, temperature receptors detect changes
Neural –
Nervous control
Messages sent to the medulla (respiratory control centre)
Messages to send respiratory muscles via sympathetic nervous system.

22. Respiratory System so far . . .
What is the Oxygen-Haemoglobin Disassociation Curve?
What happens to the curve during exercise?
What causes this to happen?
What are the effects of the curve shifting to the right?
What changes occur to the respiratory system as a result of training?

23. Lung Volumes (Average male) ** Learn
Volume Name
Description
Value at Rest (ml)
Change during Exercise
Tidal Volume (TV)
Amount of air breathed in or out per breath
500
Increases
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Maximal amount of air forcibly inspired in addition to tidal volume
3100
Decreases
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Maximal amount of air forcibly expired in addition to tidal volume
1200
Vital Capacity (VC)
Maximal amount of air exhaled after a maximal inspiration
(TV + IRV + ERV)
4800
Slight
Residual Volume (RV)
Amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal expiration
None
Total Lung Capacity (TV)
Vital Capacity plus residual volume
(TV + IRV + ERV + RV)
6000
none

24. Effects of Exercise on Volumes
At rest, lungs are ventilated at approx. 6 Litres per minute
During “steady state” endurance exercise maximal ventilation is about Litres per minute (males) and Litres per minute (females) – smaller lungs!
Brief maximal exercise (800m race) rates may increase to Litres per minute
BREATHING RATES – rise from 12 per minute to 45 per minute during strenuous exercise
Depth of respiration can increase from 0.5 litres per breath to 2.5 litres per breath
Training will usually result in little or no change in pulmonary function. However, swimmers may experience some increase in vital capacity and maximal breathing capacity (breathing against resistance of the water)
Comparison of marathon runners and sedentary subjects showed no difference in actual lung functions (FEV1, etc)

25. Summary
The respiratory system functions to deliver O2 to the lungs and remove CO2
The system consists of the nose, trachea, larynx, bronchial tree and lungs
Inspiration occurs when air is drawn into the lungs by the reduction of the pressure caused by an increase in the size of the thoracic cavity
Expiration occurs when the pressure increases as the size of the thoracic cavity decreases and air is forced out
During normal breathing inspiration is produced by the activity of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles
During exercise both the rate and depth of breathing increase
Respiration is controlled by the MEDULLA of the brain
Total Lung Capacity = Tidal Volume + Inspiratory Reserve Volume + Expiratory Reserve Volume and Residual Volume (6000ml)