2. The major emphasis of _______________is the study of the unconscious .
QUESTION OF THE DAY
The major emphasis of _______________is the study of the unconscious .

3. Chapter Preview Ethics in research Research methods descriptive
Correlational
experimental

4. Why do we use the scientific method?
We have questions to everyday life that needs answers.
---Psychologist take an observation of everyday life, develop a theory that might explain that observation, and then test their ideas systematically using the scientific method.
“Coffee Drinkers are smarter”
.how to evaluate claims
-critical thinking (soursop and cancer cure)

5. What is the scientific method?
1.Observation
2. Formulate a hypothesis; (make an educated guess, or a prediction)
3. Test the hypothesis
4. Draw conclusions
5. Evaluate the theory

6. Three Main Types of Psychological research
Descriptive research
Correlational research
Experimental research

7. Descriptive research
Used to describe a phenomenon, it cannot be used to determine cause and effect or for prediction.
Naturalistic observation
case-study
survey

8. Naturalistic Observation
Watch subjects in their natural environment.
Do not manipulate the environment.
“kids who share their toys, are also the first to help others”

9. Survey Method Most common type of study in psychology Cheap and fast
Uses interviews/questionnaires to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people.

10. Case Studies
In a case study, a single individual or small number of persons are studies in great depth. --involves the use of observations, interviews, medical history, & psychological testing. limitation--findings are not applicable to the general public.
Serial killers who are diagnosed with anti-social personality disorder!
E.g. mild-mannered Jeffrey Dahmer was accused of killing, raping, torturing, and even in some cases eating a total of 17 victims between 1978 and 1991.
Medical doctors (cause of death) (thiodan 35 poisoning)

11. Correlational Method
A method used to establish a degree of relationship between 2 variables.
Does not show causation.
Variables: events, behaviors, characteristics
Correlation between the amount of study time and GPA.

12. Correlation method
Obtain a Correlation Coefficient (Pearson's r)= numerical value that indicates strength and direction between the variables
r= ranges form to 0.0 to -1.00
E.g. Positive correlation between illness and stress

13. Types of correlation Positive Correlation Negative Correlations
Studying and GPA
Drug use and GPA
3+study hours
Time spent at mall
0 study hours
Note: Scatter plots may tend to confuse introductory students if you do not take time to explain the basics about how to interpret scatter plots.
Low GPA
High GPA
Money in bank account
The variables go in the SAME direction
Variables go in OPPOSITE directions

14. Correlation Coefficients
1.00
Perfect
Very Strong
.75
Strong
.50
Moderate
.25
Suggestion: Cite examples of familiar real-life correlations that fall within each range.
Weak
None

15. Correlation does not prove causation
One variable does not necessarily cause the other.
Stress Illness
Illness Stress
Stress Poverty Illness

16. Why are correlational methods useful
Correlational research is useful to making predictions
For ethical reasons
Quick and cheap
E.g. SAT and GPA, # of cigarettes smoked vs. years lived, grades and TV time.

17. Discussion question
A study shows that there is a -.87 correlation between a student's anxiety before a test and the student's score after the test. What can you conclude?
Student’s test anxiety caused student to perform poorly.
Student’s poor performance caused him to have an anxiety.
There is a negative relationship between these two variables.

18. Remember it
In positive correlation, two variables move in the _______________
In negative correlation, two variables move in the _______________

19. Operational Definitions, Discussion
Number of packs people smoke vs. years lived.
Formulate a hypothesis.
What is the Independent Variable and Dependent variable?

20. Independent and dependent variables
The independent variable can be manipulated and causes changes in some other variable. i
The dependent variable is the one that is measured at the end of the experiment.
e.g. Example of study Music can boost your memory! IV: music DV: memory defined as completing the word list.
Researchers must precisely specify how the variables will be observed and measured.

21. Experimental method
The only research method used to identify cause-effect relationships.
There must at lease one experimental group and one control group

22. Research Sample
The sample must be a representative of the population you want to study.
Identify the population you want to Sample
Representative Sample
characteristics similar to population
Random Sample
Each individual in population has equal chance of being selected.
Note that genuinely random sampling (by this definition) is virtually never achieved in practice. It is an ideal to which researchers aspire. Discuss advantages of random sampling (and of aspiring to it), (e.g., achieving representativeness not only on known variables, but unknown ones as well). Instructor might contrast this with “convenience” sampling, a more common practice.

23. Random Assignment
Once you have a random sample, randomly assigning them into two groups helps control for confounding variables.
Experimental Group v. Control Group.

24. Experimental design Experimental group
A group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable or treatment.
Control group
Used for purposes of comparison, is not exposed to the independent variable
An experiment is designed to test a casual hypothesis, a prediction about a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
Can we assume that Alcohol consumption causes aggression.

25. Experimental Method Looking to prove causal relationships.
Cause = Effect
Laboratory v. Field Experiments
Smoking causes health issues.

26. Beware of Confounding Variables
The object of an experiment is to prove that A causes B.
A confounding variable is anything that could cause change in B, that is not A.
If I wanted to prove that smoking causes heart disease, what are some confounding variables?
Lifestyle and family history may also effect the heart.

27. Confounding variables
Three sources of bias responsible for confounding variables
Selection Bias: systematic differences are present at the beginning of the study---to avoid use random assignment
Experimenter Bias: they find what they expect to find----to avoid use double blind technique

28. Other Confounding Variables
Placebo-effect occurs when subject’s response to treatment is due to expectation rather than the treatment itself.
placebo is a harmless substance.

29. APA Ethical Guidelines for Research
Institutional approval
Informed Consent
All participants must know what their participation will involve and what risk might develop.
Confidentiality
Keeping all data confidential and anonymous
Debriefing
Informing participants the purpose of the research and the methods used after the study or before.
Deception
Not telling participants exactly what a study is about.

30. Human Research Must be voluntary Informed consent Anonymity
No significant risk, causes no physical or psychological harm to the participant
Must debrief after the experiment

31. Animal Research Clear purpose Treated in a humane way
Acquire animals legally
Least amount of suffering possible.