1. Biological Foundations of Behavior
Chapter Two
Biological Foundations of Behavior

2. Some cells in your nervous system are more than three feet long?
Did You Know That…
Some cells in your nervous system are more than three feet long?
Our bodies produce natural painkillers that are chemically similar to morphine and other narcotic drugs?
Fetuses not only suck their thumbs in the womb, but that 95% of them suck their right thumbs?
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3. Did You Know That… (Cont’d)
Though a man survived an accident in which a thick metal rod was driven right through his skull, his personality changed so much that people thought he was no longer himself?
Men’s and women’s bodies produce both male and female sex hormones?
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4. Did You Know That… (Cont’d)
Scientists have deciphered the entire human genetic code and posted it on the Internet?
Raising the body temperature of a finger may relieve the pain of a migraine headache?
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5. Neurons: The Body’s Wiring
Module 2.1
Neurons: The Body’s Wiring

6. Module 2.1 Preview Questions
What is a neuron?
What are the parts of a neuron?
What are the types of neurons and types of cells found in the nervous system?
How is a neural impulse generated and transmitted from one neuron to another?
What roles do neurotransmitters play in psychological functioning?
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7. Figure 2.1: The Neuron
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8. Cells in the Nervous System
Three types of neurons
Sensory neurons (or “afferent neurons”)
Motor neurons (or “efferent neurons”)
Interneurons (or “associative neurons”)
Glial cells
Account for 90% of cells in adult human brain
Help hold neurons together
Provide supports for the nervous system
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9. Figure 2.2: An Action Potential
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10. Figure 2.3: How Neurons Communicate
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11. Preventing the Continued Stimulation of a Receiving Neuron
Reuptake
Enzymes in the synapse
Release of neuromodulators
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12. Functioning of Neurotransmitters
Normal functioning requires balance.
Disorders may result from:
Neurotransmitter excess
Neurotransmitter deficit
Irregularities in functioning
Effects influenced by drugs or chemicals:
Antagonists
Agonists
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13. Neurotransmitter-Related Disorders
Schizophrenia
May be the results of irregularities in the utilization of dopamine
Antipsychotic drugs block receptor sites for dopamine
Parkinson’s disease
Occurs from a loss of dopamine-producing cells
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14. Effects of Agonists Caffeine increases availability of glutamate.
Amphetamines and cocaine increase availability of dopamine in the brain.
Alcohol and antianxiety drugs increase the sensitivity of receptor sites to GABA.
Antidepressants increase levels of norepinephrine and serotonin.
Morphine and heroin mimic effects of naturally occurring endorphins.
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15. The Nervous System: Your Body’s Information Superhighway
Module 2.2
The Nervous System: Your Body’s Information Superhighway

16. Module 2.2 Preview Questions
How is the nervous system organized?
What are spinal reflexes?
What is the autonomic nervous system?
What is the relationship between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
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17. Figure 2.4: Parts of the Nervous System
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18. Concept Chart 2.2: Organization of the Nervous System
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19. Central Nervous System
Consists of:
Brain
Spinal cord
CNS regulates everything in the body.
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20. Column of nerves extending from brain
Spinal Cord
Column of nerves extending from brain
Protected by the spine
Transmits information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system
Controls some spinal reflexes
Allows quick responses to particular types of stimuli
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21. Figure 2.5a: The Knee-Jerk Reflex
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22. Figure 2.5b: The Withdrawal Reflex
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23. Peripheral Nervous System
Connects the CNS with the other parts of the body
Divided into two parts:
Somatic Nervous System: Transmits messages between CNS and the sensory organs, glands, and muscles
Autonomic Nervous System: Controls internal bodily processes
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24. Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
Speeds up bodily processes
Draws energy from stored reserves
Activation often accompanied by strong emotions
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Fosters bodily processes that replenish energy stores
Helps conserve energy by slowing down other bodily processes
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25. The Brain: Your Crowning Glory
Module 2.3
The Brain: Your Crowning Glory

26. Module 2.3 Preview Questions
How is the brain organized, and what are the functions of its various parts?
How is the cerebral cortex organized?
What are the major functions associated with the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?
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28. Lowest, oldest part of the brain Includes the:
Hindbrain
Lowest, oldest part of the brain
Includes the:
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
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29. Figure 2.6: The Brainstem
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30. Contains nerve pathways that connect the hindbrain with the forebrain
Midbrain
Contains nerve pathways that connect the hindbrain with the forebrain
Midbrain structures perform important roles
e.g., control of automatic movements of the eye muscles
Reticular formation plays key role in regulating states of attention, alertness, and arousal.
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31. Major Structures of the Forebrain
Thalamus
Relays sensory information to appropriate parts of the cerebral cortex
Receives input from the basal ganglia
Hypothalamus
Regulates many vital bodily functions as well as emotional states, aggressive behavior, and response to stress
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32. Group of interconnected structures:
The Limbic System
Group of interconnected structures:
Amygdala: Helps regulate states of emotional arousal
Hippocampus: Plays important role in the formation of memories
Parts of the thalamus
Parts of the hypothalamus
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33. Cerebrum consists of the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
The Cerebral Cortex
Thin, outer layer of the largest part of the forebrain which is called the cerebrum
Cerebrum consists of the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
Hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum
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34. Figure 2.7: The Size of the Cerebral Cortex in Humans and Other Animals
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35. Figure 2.8: Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
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36. Table 2.1: The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
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37. Figure 2.9: Somatosensory Cortex and Motor Cortex
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38. Methods of Studying the Brain
Module 2.4
Methods of Studying the Brain

39. Module 2.4 Preview Questions
What recording and imaging techniques are used to study brain functioning?
What experimental methods do scientists use to study brain functioning?
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40. Recording and Imaging Techniques
EEG (electroencephalograph)
CT (computed tomography) scan
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
fMRI (functional MRI)
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41. Electrical stimulation
Experimental Methods
Lesioning
Electrical recording
Electrical stimulation
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42. The Divided Brain: Specialization of Function
Module 2.5
The Divided Brain:
Specialization of Function

43. Module 2.5 Preview Questions
What are the major differences between the left and right hemispheres?
What determines handedness?
What can we learn about brain lateralization from studies of “split-brain” patients?
What are the major causes of brain damage, and what effects do they have on psychological functioning?
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44. Lateralization of Brain Functions
Refers to division of functions between right and left hemispheres
Left hemisphere dominant for language abilities, logical reasoning, and problem solving
Right hemisphere dominant in nonverbal processing
People are not “left-brained” or “right-brained.”
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45. Figure 2.15: Broca’s and Wernicke’s Area
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46. What Determines Handedness?
Genetics factors
Neither parent left handed: Odds are 1 in 50
One parent left-handed: Odds are 1 in 6
Both parents left-handed: Odds are 1 in 2
Social factors
Prenatal hormones
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47. Severing corpus callosum as treatment for severe epilepsy
Split-Brain Research
Severing corpus callosum as treatment for severe epilepsy
Split-brain patients retain intellect and personality
But differences in perception, language evident in special testing circumstances
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48. Figure 2.16: Split-Brain Study
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49. Figure 2.16: Split-Brain Study (Cont’d)
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50. Brain Damage and Psychological Functioning
Case of Phineas Gage: Prefrontal cortex damage
Plasticity: Ability of the brain to adapt and reorganize itself following trauma or surgical alteration
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51. The Endocrine System: The Body’s Other Communication System
Module 2.6
The Endocrine System: The Body’s Other Communication System

52. Module 2.6 Preview Questions
What are the major endocrine glands?
What roles do hormones play in behavior?
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53. Another communication system in the body
Endocrine System
Another communication system in the body
But much slower than the nervous system
Messages conveyed through blood vessels using hormones
Regulates important bodily processes
Helps body to maintain homeostasis
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54. Figure 2.18: Major Glands of the Endocrine System
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55. Testosterone and aggression Thyroid hormones and metabolism
Hormones and Behavior
Testosterone and aggression
Thyroid hormones and metabolism
Excess: anxiety and irritability
Deficit: sluggishness
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
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56. Genes and Behavior: A Case of Nature and Nurture
Module 2.7
Genes and Behavior: A Case of Nature and Nurture

57. Module 2.7 Preview Questions
What roles do genetic factors play in behavior?
What are the methods used to study genetic influences on behavior?
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58. Genetic Influences on Behavior
Nature-nurture problem
Genotype: An organism’s genetic code
Phenotype: The observable physical and behavioral characteristics of the organism
Genetic and environmental influences interact in complex ways to shape our personality.
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59. Familial association studies Twin studies
Kinship Studies
Familial association studies
Twin studies
Identical (MZ) vs. fraternal (DZ) twins
Concordance rates
Adoptee studies
Continue
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60. Figure 2.19: Genetic Overlap Among Family Members
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61. Figure 2.20: Familial Risk in Schizophrenia
Return
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62. Biofeedback Training: Learning by Listening to the Body
Application: Module 2.8
Biofeedback Training: Learning by Listening to the Body

63. Module 2.8 Preview Question
What is biofeedback training?
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64. Biofeedback Training (BFT)
Monitoring equipment provides information about internal functioning such as:
Heart rate
Blood pressure
Muscle tension
Temperature
Through feedback, gain some degree of conscious control over physiological functioning
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