1. Nature and Scope of Business Research

2. Objectives Understand what research is
Have appreciable knowledge on the research process
Know the various classifications of research
Understand research paradigms
Appreciate the features of a good research
Appreciate how theories are broken down into concepts and variables.

3. What is Research?
Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions (Boateng, 2014).
Research is something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2007).
Business and management research is undertaken in order to find out things about business and management.

4. Uniqueness of Business and Management Research
According to Easterby-Smith et al. (2002) (as cited in Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2007), business and management research is unique because of the following:
(a) the way in which managers (and researchers) draw on knowledge developed by other disciplines;
(b) the fact that managers tend to be powerful and busy people. Therefore, they are unlikely to allow research access unless they can see personal or commercial advantage; and
(c) the requirement for the research to have some practical consequence.

5. Major Topics for Research in Business
General Business Conditions
Financial and Accounting Research
Management and Organizational Behavior Research
Sales and Marketing Research
Information Systems Research
Corporate Responsibility Research

6. Why do we do Research? We do research to: (a) Discover/Explore;
(b) Understand
(c) Describe;
(d) Explain; and/or
(e) Predict/create
…social or scientific phenomena

7. Alternatives to Research
Without research the common sources of perceptions, information and knowledge include the following:
(a) Authority which is accepting something as true or as a fact because it comes from people of authority;
(b) Tradition refers to accepting something as true or as a fact because it is based on the past – passed on from previous generation and become a norm;
(c) Common sense refers to ordinary reasoning which may be built from a person’s experiences and sometimes tradition;
Media myth refers to arriving at conclusions based on a reality created by the media
(e) Personal experience refers to learning through our sensory impressions and knowledge – ‘seeing is believing’.

8. Who needs research?
Research is needed by researchers, practitioners and policy makers.
Stakeholders of research include organisations, communities, government and non-governmental institutions and society in general.
Research has to fit into a body of knowledge or practice or policy.

9. The Research Process

10. More Detailed Research Process
Selecting a research topic
Determining the research problem
Determining research gaps
Determining research hypotheses
Determining research objectives
Determining research questions
Detailed literature review
Determining research framework
Designing the research
Collecting Data
Analyzing and interpreting Data
Informing others (research write up and publication)

11. Classifications of Research
The various types of research are classified according to:
(a) Application of the research or use of the research results
(b) Purpose or objective of the research
( c) Inquiry procedure of the research including:
- Paradigm or philosophies underpinning the research;
- Approach of the research
-Time dimensions of the research

12. Type of Research based on application

13. Type based on the Purpose or Objectives of the Research
Exploratory Research
Descriptive Research
Explanatory or Causal Research

14. Inquiry Procedure of the research
Research philosophies and paradigm:
Approach of the Research:
Time Dimension of the Research
positivism,
interpretivist,
realism,
relativism and
critical realism.
Quantitative (Structured) Research
Qualitative (Unstructured) Research
Cross-sectional study
Longitudinal Study (Panel or Cohort studies)
Time Series

15. Overview of Research Paradigms or Philosophies
ONTOLOGY (What is the nature of reality?)
Epistemology (What is the nature of knowledge generated?)
Methodology (How is knowledge created?)
POSITIVISM
There is a single, objective and tangible reality
Value-free. Knowledge generated is objective, free of time influences, and is context independent.
Researchers formulate research questions and hypotheses and then test them empirically under carefully controlled circumstances. Deductive reasoning.
INTERPRETIVISM
Multiple realities exist, subject to human experiences and interpretation. Reality is socially constructed
Value-Laden. Knowledge generated is subjective, time-bound and context dependent.
Knowledge is created through researchers identifying the various interpretations and constructions of reality that exist and attempting to establish patterns.
Inductive logic and emergent design

16. ONTOLOGY (What is the nature of reality?)
Epistemology (What is the nature of knowledge generated?)
Methodology (How is knowledge created?)
REALISM
Reality is ‘real’ but only imperfectly and probabilistically apprehensible, so triangulation from many sources is required to try to know it.
Value-Cognizant/Value aware. Findings are probably true … researchers needs to triangulate any perceptions collected
Social phenomenon is understood through hypotheses which are tested to establish patterns of associations and hence, the most possible explanation. Hypothetico-Deduction
RELATIVISM
Multiple realities exist. Reality as truth is not “absolute”, it is relative, it is dependent upon ‘something’ and it does exist.
The interpretation of the world requires some form of human processing
The construction of knowledge is influenced by worldview and research paradigm of a researcher. Researchers should focus more on creating and developing new ‘useful’ theories – useful solutions to specific problems.
CRITICAL REALISM
Two worlds – transitive and intransitive. Transitive is what we observe and learn with our mind – the perceptions of reality. Intransitive embodies the reality which is independent of what the mind thinks.
Transitive world is value-laden and changing continually. Intransitive world has underlying structures and mechanisms that are ‘relatively enduring’ – that is what we want to study.
Researchers seek to deconstruct and understand the structure and mechanisms underlying the subjective realities that exist. Triangulation from many sources is required to try to know it. Retroductive reasoning

17. Characteristics of a Good Research
Aim
Rigor
Testability
Replicability
Precision and Confidence
Objectivity
Generalizability
Parsimony

18. Theory
A coherent set of general propositions used as principles of explanation of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena.

19. Two Purposes Of Theory
Prediction
Understanding

20. Concept (or Construct)
A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name
Building blocks that abstract reality
“leadership,” “productivity,” and “morale”
“gross national product,” “asset,” and “inflation”

21. A Ladder Of Abstraction For Concepts
Vegetation
Fruit
Increasingly more abstract
Banana
Reality

22. Scientific Business Researchers Operate at Two Levels
Abstract level
concepts
propositions
Empirical level
variables
hypotheses

23. Definitions
Abstract level -In theory development, the level of knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an idea or a quality apart from an object.
Empirical level -Level of knowledge reflecting that which is verifiable by experience or observation.

24. Theory Building A Process Of Increasing Abstraction
Theories
Propositions
Increasingly more abstract
Concepts
Observation of objects
and events (reality )

25. Concepts are Abstractions of Reality
Level
Empirical
Level
OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS
AND EVENTS (REALITY)

26. Abstract Level Concepts abstract reality.
Propositions are statements concerned with the relationships among concepts.

27. Proposition at Abstract Level
Concept A
(Reinforcement)
Concept B
(Habits)
Hypothesis at Empirical Level
Cedi bonus for
sales volume
over quota
Always makes
four sales calls
a day

28. A hypothesis is a proposition that is empirically testable
A hypothesis is a proposition that is empirically testable. It is an empirical statement concerned with the relationship among variables.
A variable is anything that may assume different numerical values.

30. Deductive Reasoning
The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a known premise or something known to be true.
We know that all managers are human beings.
If we also know that John Smith is a manager,
then we can deduce that John Smith is a human being.

31. Inductive Reasoning
The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of observation of particular facts.
All managers that have ever been seen are human beings;
therefore all managers are human beings.

32. Scientific Method
The use of a set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting theoretical statements about events and for predicting events yet unknown.

33. The Scientific Method: An Overview
Assess
relevant
existing
knowledge
Formulate
concepts &
Propositions
Statement of
Hypotheses
Design
research
Acquire
empirical
data
Analyze &
evaluate
data
Provide
explanation-
state new
problem