1. Welcome

2. Tutorials PLEASE: Turn off your cell phone Be on time for the class
Attend regularly
Come prepared

3. Dates of tutorials

4. The research process Stage 1: Definition of the problem
Stage 2: Obtaining the information
Stage 3: Analysing and interpreting the data
Stage 4: Communicating the results

5. The research process STAGE 1: DEFINING THE PROBLEM
Deciding on the research topic
Conducting a literature review
Specify a research question
Formulating a hypothesis
Operationalizing concepts

6. The research process STAGE 2: Obtaining the information Ethics
Research design
Sampling
Data collection
STAGE 3: Analysing and interpreting the information
Describing and interpreting quantitative data
Analyses and interpretation of qualitative data

7. The research process
STAGE 4: Communicating the results
Report

8. Data collection

9. Outcomes Levels of measurement Examples of levels of measurement
Existing sources of data
Likert scale
Interviews
Self-administered questionnaire
Selection of a observational technique

10. Levels of measurement
The level of measurement determines what statistical procedures can be applied
Nominal level
The categories used in nominal levels of measurement have the following characteristics:
Discrete (separate)
Mutually exclusive – choosing one category automatically excludes other categories
Exhaustive – includes all possible responses

11. Levels of measurement 2. Ordinal level
Data is ranked according to order of importance
Ordinal scales
Likert scales
- Semantic scales
Used to measure behaviour, attitudes, opinions and preferences

12. Levels of measurement 3. Interval level Interval tscale
Can measure the interval or distance between two points on a quantitative instrument (eg thermometer)
Does not have an absolute zero point

13. Levels of measurement 4. Ratio level Highest level of measurement
Has an absolute zero
Is used when using weight, length and time
Not used to measure people’s attitudes (there can not be an total absence of the quality)

14. Measurement errors
The measuring instrument we use could bias the actual data collected and interpretation of findings
Measurement error
An inaccuracy that influences the measurement of an attribute
Two sources of measurement error
Systematic error
People tend to give a favorable impression
This can bias their responses systematically
Random error
- When measurements vary due to some factors eg p175

15. Using existing data
Do a literature survey (using sources of existing data)
Research which is fully based on analysing existing data
Advantages of using existing data
Unobtrusive
Practical – takes less time and costs less
Reliability and validity can be confirmed

16. Using existing data Sources of existing data
Primary data – info collected at the original source
Secondary data – info taken someone other than the original source eg another researcher’s report
Tertiary data – interpretations based on comments on secondary sources
Check and verify the authenticity and credibility of sources and data p 177
Genuineness and credibility

17. Survey vs field research
Survey research is systematic collection of specific information, obtained through asking a sample or respondents the same questions at a particular point in time
Field research involves observing events and people in their natural settings

18. Interviews Structured - specific lists of questions are asked
Unstructured interviews – there are no specific questions, respondents give their reactions to general issues
Two types of face to face interviews
In-depth interviews – to obtain detailed information
Focus group interviews (group interviews) – consist of 6 to 12 people who are interviewed together at the same time.

19. Interviews 4. Types of questions asked in interviews p181
Closed-ended questions – fixed number of answers (yes/no)
Open questions – encourage respondents to express their attitudes
Free-narration questions – tell his/her own story
Role-playing questions – respondent is invited to play a certain role
Follow-up questions – follow on from the respondents answers to a closed ended question

20. Interviews Filter question: identify a subgroup
Contingency question: only apply to some respondents eg how often do you smoke dagga?

21. Interviews Conducting an interview
Decide who is going to be interviewed
Individuals or groups, social setting, time chosen
Advanced planning
Purpose of the interview must be made clear at beginning of interview
Begin with general questions, later sensitive ones
Do a pre-test or pilot test before the actual research

22. Advantages Advantages: interviews
Because interviews are flexible, it can provide researcher with detailed information
Respondents do not have to be literate
Non verbal communication can be observed
Advantages telephone interview
Data can be collected quickly
Not expensive

23. Limitations Limitations: interviews
Bias is problem. Interviewer may be biased towards interviewee because of eg race
Face to face interviews are costly
Training in skills is necessary
Cannot interview a large sample
limitations: telephonic interview
Sampling bias – obtaining a sample that is not representative of the population
People tend to be suspicious

24. Questionnaires (in survey & field research)
Questions which should be avoided:
Double-barreled –two questions are joined in one question – either / both, or/therefore/and
Loaded language / leading questions – conveys a position for or against a topic being investigated “also”
“Can” or “might” should be avoided – only one logical answer
Negative items – could be misinterpreted
Incomplete question – inadequately defined
Vague agents of action – ambiguous
Lengthy questions – complex
Unwarranted assumptions – use filter and contingency questions
Acronym or abbreviations

25. Questionnaires Types of items included in questionnaires ex on p 189
Closed ended questions consist of two or more responses – Yes / No
Paired-comparison questions – person has to think about the options and compare their meanings
Contingency questions – apply to only some of the respondents (nursed a cancer patient)
Filter questions – used to identify a subgroup in the sample
Ranking questions – Options must be ranked or ordered from the most to the least, according to the respondent’s preference
Inventory questions – to obtain a comprehensive overview of all possible options that could apply to each respondent
Multiple-choice questions – the respondent must select one option from those given

26. Scales as self-report measures
Likert scales p192
Categories - strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree
Summative scaling procedure – nrs for different items are added together
Guttman and Thurstone – to measure people’s attitudes
Semantic differential scales
Consists of a series of seven-point spaces which have bipolar ratings (two poles or extremes) on either end of each scale
Response bias / response set – respondents fall into a pattern of answering questions in a certain way

27. Ordering of questionnaire items
Begin with general or broader questions
Items should follow a logical pattern
Begin with neutral questions, put sensitive questions more towards the middle

28. Properties of scales
Reliability - the degree to which a scale yields consistent results or scores
Three empirical methods are used to estimate a scales' reliability
Test-retest method
Split-half method
Equivalent forms method

29. Reliability Test-retest method
correlating one scale to the same group of respondents at different times, with intervals (one week to a yr)
Reliability is estimated by correlating the two sets of scores
Suitable for determining the stability component of reliability.

30. Reliability 2. Split-half method
The scale is split into two halves, with each half scored separately.
Reliability is estimated by the correlation between the scores of the two halves
Estimate the internal consistency among the items

31. Reliability 3. Equivalent-forms (alternate form) method
Compiling two forms that contain items which measure the same phenomenon.
Two sets of scores are correlated
Equivalency component of the instrument’s reliability
4. Intercoder reliability: the extent to which the ratings of two or more coders are the same

32. Validity
The degree to which a scale measures what it is supposed to measure
Predictive validity
Concurrent validity
Content validity
Construct validity

33. Validity Four ways of estimating an instrument’s validity
Criterion validity
1. Predictive validity - an instrument’s ability to measure and predict the criterion measure
2. Concurrent validity – validity is estimated by administering the attitude scale and criterion measure at approx the same time

34. Validity
Four ways of estimating an instrument’s validity B. Content validity – to what degree do the items correspond with that being researched C. Construct validity – the extent to which it measures the construct that it is supposed to measure

35. Conducting a survey Broad guidelines Construct a measuring instrument
Conduct a pilot test of the instrument
Test the reliability and validity of the instrument
Carefully consider the timing of the survey

36. Advantages and limitations of using questionnaires
p199

37. Observational techniques (in field research)
5 conditions for observation to become a scientific method of collecting data p199
3 factors that influence researchers’ observation
Selective attention, bias, the researcher’s intentions.
Field observation: people are observed in their natural environment
Participant observation: researcher joins and becomes involved with the observed group
nonparticipant observation: the researcher is entirely removed
Ethnographic research: to describe a particular group’s way of life
Reactive observations vs nonreactive observations

38. Observational techniques (in field research)
Roles of observer in field research
Participant observation – the researcher (as the observer) joins and becomes involved with the group being observed
Ethnographic research: to describe a particular group’s way of life, from its cultural setting
Audience ethnography - audiences
Street ethnography – certain settings for ex shelter

39. Observational techniques (in field research)
Roles of observer in field research
Reactive observations vs nonreactive observations (non participant observation)
Reactive observations – observations that influence the behaviour being observed
Non reactive observations – observations that do not influence the behaviour being observed
Non participant observations – researcher is entirely removed from the social interaction
Overtly vs unobtrusive
Concealed (hidden recording devices) vs partial observation (concealment)

40. Conducting field observations
What is observed depends on the research design and theoretical assumptions
4 categories of observation in field research where researcher exerts no control over behaviours:
Observing external or physical signs e.g. clothing
Observing kinesics – e.g. Nonverbal communication
Observing proxemics - status and control, distance between people
Linguistic insulation – separating oneself from others by means of language
Depersonalisation – losing one’s sense of identity
Language behaviour – stuttering, slips of the tongue, silences

41. Conducting field observations
How are the observations recorded?
a. Classification – persons and behaviours are arranged in groups
Operational definition of categories used in classifications must be discrete, mutually exclusive and exhaustive
Replication
b. Select or devise instruments to observe and measure and analyse the data

42. Advantages and limitations of observational techniques
Advantage – enables researchers to study social interactions
Limits – has low external validity