1. Chapter 12: Interest Groups
AMERICAN GOVERNMENT, 10th edition by Theodore J. Lowi, Benjamin Ginsberg, and Kenneth A. Shepsle
Chapter 12: Interest Groups

2. Interest Group Pluralism
“By a faction I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.”
—James Madison, Federalist 10
James Madison’s Federalist 10 provides a basis for understanding the strengths and weaknesses of interest group politics in the United States.

3. The Institution Principle
Because “the latent causes of faction … are sown in the nature of man,” Madison argued that institutional arrangement must be erected to control the effects of factional politics.
Madison believed:
Balancing the conflicting interests of different factions was the most reliable way to control the negative effects of factional politics.
Increasing the number and variety of factions actually aided the pursuit of the public good.

4. Following Madison, mid-20th century pluralists argued that interest group politics was a major strength of American government and society.
Pluralism is the theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the government. The outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation.

5. Pluralists argued that interest groups
represent many diverse interests in society;
provide expert information and perspectives that improve policy making.

6. Critics of pluralism argued that interest groups
represent “special interests” and do not reflect the broader will of the people or the public good;
overrepresent the wealthy in society;
provide self-serving and biased information that warp policy making.

7. Even if they disagreed on whether group politics was good or bad, pluralists and their critics were united in their belief that interest groups were plentiful, powerful, and influential in American politics.
What kinds of interest groups exist?
Why do people join interest groups?
How do groups gain influence in politics?

8. Types of Interest Groups
Interest groups form
to increase the chance that their views will be heard;
to influence government;
to represent interests and encourage political participation.

9. Examples of such economic interest groups include:
Some interest groups organize because they have a direct economic interest in government policies.
Examples of such economic interest groups include:
National Association of Manufacturers
American Farm Bureau Federation

10. The International Brotherhood of Teamsters SEIU
Organized labor organizations are important interest groups in Washington politics.
Examples include:
AFL-CIO
The International Brotherhood of Teamsters
SEIU

11. Professional associations also try to influence the government:
American Medical Association
American Bar Association

12. Some groups, like public interest groups and ideological groups, become active not out of direct economic interest but for some broader purpose.
Public-sector groups like the National League of Cities, think tanks, and universities also lobby the government.

13. Although pluralists are correct that there are a wide variety of interest groups, critics of pluralism are also correct that some interests (particularly wealthy interests) are better represented than others in American politics.

15. The Logic of Collective Action
Both enhancing democracy and representing the “evils” of factional politics, interest groups (however problematic) are a fixture of American politics.
How can we reconcile the vast number of interest groups in American politics with the idea that achieving collective action is difficult?

16. The Collective-Action Principle:
All politics is collective action.
1. Government requires collective social action.
2. As the number and diversity of the relevant actors increase, so does the collective action problem.

17. In The Logic of Collective Action, Mancur Olson argued that incentives exist for individuals to shirk their responsibilities to contribute to the public good.
Because the benefits of public policy are distributed equally to those who contribute to policy formation and those who do not, individuals have incentives to “free ride” and let others invest time, energy, and money to getting policies passed.

18. Given the free rider problem, why would anyone join interest groups or put forth effort to lobby the government about public policy? Indeed, why are there so many interest groups in American politics?

19. The Institution Principle: Institutions routinely solve collective action problems.
Institutional arrangements provide for a division of labor, rules regarding decision making, and checks on the powers of political actors and institutions.
These routines and structured relationships enable cooperation that alleviate impediments to collective action.

20. The obstacles to overcoming the collective action problem are not insurmountable. By building a strong organization, interest groups can offer individuals powerful incentives to join groups and contribute to the collective good.

21. Interest groups give individuals incentives to join the group through the provision of selective benefits.
Types of Selective Benefits
informational benefits
material benefits
solidary benefits
purposive benefits

23. Interest Group Influence
Once formed, interest groups seek to
influence the creation and implementation of policy in the legislative and executive branches;
influence the interpretation of policy in the courts;
shape public opinion regarding policy;
influence the outcomes of elections.

24. Strategies of Influence
Contemporary interest groups seek influence over policy makers through a mix of “inside” strategies and “outside” strategies.
Inside strategies include:
lobbying
influencing administrative rule-making
litigation
Outside strategies include:
influencing election outcomes
affecting media coverage

26. Interest groups “lobby” legislators in efforts to shape policy as it is being made.
Interest groups also seek to cultivate access to officials in the executive branch to influence administrative rule making and the details of policy implementation.

27. Interest groups hire lawyers to influence the judiciary.
Sometimes groups are litigants in lawsuits.
Often groups submit amicus curiae briefs giving their perspectives on cases to which they are not a party.

28. Interest groups seek to influence public opinion by
developing media strategies and advertising (known as going public);
mobilizing citizens at the grass roots.

29. Finally, interest groups seek to influence the outcome of elections.
By mobilizing their members, groups can deliver volunteers and votes to campaigns.
Through political action committees (PACs), groups contribute money to candidates. The influence of PAC contributions has increased considerably in recent years.

30. Assessing American Pluralism
The Policy Principle: Political outcomes are the products of individual preferences and institutional procedures.
Outcomes are the products of the intermingling of individual goals and institutions.
How do the ways that interest groups organize and compete for influence affect the representative character of American group pluralism?

31. How might the need to provide “selective benefits” in order to organize be an added cost to group politics?
How might the need to hire lobbyists, lawyers, pollsters, and media consultants contribute to such class biases in pluralism?
Recall that critics of pluralism argued that the wealthy were over-represented in group politics.

32. What interests benefit from a political system in which interest groups regularly donate large amounts of money to the policy makers they seek to influence?
Who are the groups and industries that give the most money to members of Congress?

33. Source: Center for Responsive Politics, “Top PACs” (http://www. crp
Source: Center for Responsive Politics, “Top PACs” ( Based on incomplete election cycle including moneys reported to Federal Election Commission as of October 29, 2007.