1. Chapter 9 Cellular Reproduction
Section 1: Cellular Growth
Section 2: Mitosis & Cytokinesis
Section 3: Cell Cycle Regulation

2. 9.1 Cellular Growth Objectives Review Vocabulary
Explain why cells are relatively small
Summarize the primary stages of the cell cycle
Describe the stages of interphase
Review Vocabulary
Selective permeability – process in which a membrane allows some substances to pass through while keeping others out

3. 9.1 Cellular Growth New Vocabulary Cell cycle Interphase Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Chromosome
Chromatin

4. 9.1 Cellular Growth Main idea
Cells grow until they reach their size limit, then they either stop growing or divide.
Cell size must be limited to ensure that the needs of the cell are met.
For example…..As a cell size increases a cell has a difficulty communicating, obtaining and supplying nutrients, expelling/eliminating waste, transporting substance via diffusion, osmosis, endocytosis.

5. Cell Size Limitations Why are most cells so small?
Cells remain small to maximize the ability of diffusion and the transport of nutrients and waste products.
Factors that influence cell size
Ratio of surface area to volume
Transport of substances
Cellular communications
Cells are so small because they need to be able to get the nutrients in and the waste out quickly.

6. Ratio of surface area to volume
Surface area of a cell – the area covered by the plasma membrane
Remember the plasma membrane is the structure through which all nutrients and waste products must pass
Volume of a cell – the space taken by the inner contents of the cell, including the organelles in the cytoplasm and the nucleus
Organelles include: ribosomes, rough er, smooth er, vacuole, nucleus, nucleolus…
Surface area refers to the area outside of the cell.
Volume refers to space inside the cell.

7. Ratio of surface area to volume
As the cell grows, its volume increases much more rapidly than the surface area
This means that the cell might have difficulty supplying nutrients and expelling waste products
By remaining small, cells have a higher ratio of surface area to volume and can sustain themselves more easily
Refer to page of notes

8. Ratio of surface area to volume

9. Transport of substances
The movement of substances can be managed more easily in a small cell than in a large cell.
Remember the plasma membrane controls cellular transport because it is selectively permeable.
Substances within the cell move by diffusion or transport proteins pulling them along the cytoskeleton
1) Diffusion: is moving from high concentration to lower concentration by passive or active transport.
2) Selective permeability – process in which a membrane allows some substances to pass through while keeping others out

10. Transport of substances
Diffusion over large distances is slow and inefficient because it relies on random movement of molecules and ions.
The cytoskeleton network becomes less efficient for a cell if the distance to travel becomes too large.
Therefore, cells remain small to maximize the ability of diffusion and proteins to transport nutrients and waste products.
Small cells maintain more efficient transport systems.

11. Cellular communication
The need for signaling proteins to move throughout the cell also limits cell size.
Cell size affects the ability of the cell to communicate instructions for cellular functions.
If the cell becomes too large, it becomes almost impossible for cellular communications, many of which involve the movement of substances and signals to various organelles, to take place efficiently.

12. The Cell Cycle
Once a cell reaches its size limit, it either stops growing or it will divide.
Most cells eventually divide.
Cell Division
Prevents a cell from becoming too large
Method of cell reproduction to
Grow
Heal injuries
Cells reproduce by a cycle of growing and dividing called the cell cycle.
- The cell cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA to produce two daughter cells. 
- Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell because they contain the same number and type of chromosomes.

13. The Cell Cycle
Process of cellular reproduction, occurring in three main stages:
Interphase (the cell grows, carries out cell functions & replicates or makes copies of DNA)
Mitosis (four stages in which the cell’s nucleus and nuclear material divide)
Cytokinesis (the cell’s cytoplasm divides, creating a new cell)
Each time a cell goes through one complete cycle, it becomes two cells.
Most cells complete the cell cycle in about a day
- In interphase, the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis (it has three phases – Gap 1, Synthesis and Gap 2).
Mitosis is a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells that occurs when a parent cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells. During cell division, mitosis refers specifically to the separation of the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus.
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells.

15. The Cell Cycle

16. The stages of Interphase
G1 or Gap 1 is the period immediately after a cell divides in which it grows, carries out normal cell functions and prepares to replicate DNA
S or Synthesis is the period when a cell copies its DNA in preparation for cell division
Chromosomes-the structures that contain the genetic material is passed from generation to generation of cells
Chromatin-the relaxed DNA in the cell’s nucleus
G2 or Gap 2 is the period when the cell prepares for the division of its nucleus.
1) G1 = Cell grows and gets ready for DNA replication.
2) S1 = DNA is replicated
3) Cell grows and gets ready for mitosis.
A chromosome is made up of two chromatids which are joined by the centromere. 

18. Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Mitosis – the cell’s nuclear material divides and separates into opposite ends of the cell
Cytokinesis – the cell divides into two daughter cells with identical nuclei
In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei.
Basically, Mitosis is a process by which the duplicated genome in a cell is separated into halves that are identical in nature. Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm of the cell divides to form two 'daughter' cells.

19. Prokaryotic cell division
The cell cycle is the method by which eukaryotic cells reproduce themselves
Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
Binary fission-asexual form of reproduction in which a cell divides into two genetically identical cells
 It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. This process occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like Amoeba and Paramecium.

20. 9.1 Section Summary
The ratio of surface area to volume describes the size of the plasma membrane relative to the volume of the cell
Cell size is limited by the cell’s ability to transport materials and communicate instructions from the nucleus
The cell cycle is the process of cellular reproduction
A cell spends the majority of its lifetime in interphase

21. 9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Objectives
Describe the events of each step of mitosis
Explain the process of cytokinesis
Review Vocabulary
Life Cycle – the sequence of growth and development stages that an organism goes through during its life

22. 9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
New Vocabulary
Prophase
Sister Chromatid
Centromere
Spindle Apparatus
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

23. 9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Main idea
Eukaryotic cells reproduce by mitosis, the process of nuclear division, and cytokinesis, the process of cytoplasm division
Cyclic events occur in nature; cells also have a cycle of growth and reproduction

24. The Stages of Mitosis Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
Refer to Figure 9.6 on p. 249

25. Prophase Longest stage of Mitosis Nuclear membrane disintegrates
Two cells in prophase
Longest stage of Mitosis
Nuclear membrane disintegrates
Nucleolus disappears
Chromosomes condense (shaped like an X)
Sister chromatids – each half of the X, structures that contain identical copies of DNA
Centromere – structure at the center of the chromosome where the sister chromatids are attached, it ensures that a complete copy of the replicated DNA will become part of the daughter cell at the end of the cycle
Mitotic spindles begins to form between two poles
Spindle apparatus – consists of spindle fibers, centrioles and aster fibers; important in moving and organizing the chromosomes before cell division

27. Metaphase One of the shortest stages of Mitosis
Chromosomes attach to mitotic spindle and align along the middle or equator of the cell

28. A chromosome is a strand of DNA that is encoded with genes.
 Either of the two strands formed when a chromosome duplicates itself as part of the early stages of cell division.
The spindle fibers are microtubules, long strands of protein that move to each side of the cell.

29. Anaphase Microtubules shorten
(Metaphase)
Microtubules shorten
Sister chromatids separate into two identical chromosomes
Chromosomes move to opposite poles

31. Telophase Chromosomes reach poles of cell and decondense
Nuclear envelope re-forms
Nucleolus reappears
The spindle apparatus disassembles
Division plate (Furrow in animal cells) forms

33. Cytokinesis Plant cells Animal cells Cell plate forms
Dividing daughter cells
Animal cells
Cleavage furrow forms at equator of the cell
Cleavage furrow pinches inward until the cell divides in two daughter cells

34. Prokaryotic Cell Division
Binary fission
DNA is duplicated
Both copies attach to the plasma membrane
Plasma membrane grows
The attached DNA molecules are pulled apart
The cell completes fission, producing two new prokaryotic cells

35. 9.2 Section Summary
Mitosis is the process by which the duplicated DNA is divided
The stages of mitosis include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasm division that results in genetically identical daughter cells

36. 9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation Objectives Review Vocabulary
Summarize the role of cyclin proteins in controlling the cell cycle.
Explain how cancer relates to the cell cycle.
Describe the role of apoptosis.
Summarize the two types of stem cells and their potential uses.
Review Vocabulary
Nucleotide-subunit that makes up DNA and RNA molecules

37. 9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation New Vocabulary Main idea Cyclin
Cyclin-dependent kinase
Cancer
Carcinogen
Apoptosis
Stem cell
Main idea
The normal cell cycle is regulated by cyclin proteins.

38. Normal Cell Cycle
Different cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) combinations signal other activities, including DNA replication, protein synthesis, and nuclear division throughout the cell cycle
Cyclins are a family of proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) enzymes.
- Cyclin-dependent kinases are a family of sugar kinases first discovered for their role in regulating the cell cycle. They are also involved in regulating transcription, mRNA processing, and the differentiation of nerve cells.

40. Quality Control Checkpoints
The cell cycle has built-in checkpoints that monitor the cycle and can stop it if something goes wrong.
Spindle checkpoints also have been identified in mitosis

41. Abnormal Cell Cycle: Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and division of cells
Cancer cells can kill an organism by crowding out normal cells, resulting in the loss of tissue function.

42. Causes of Cancer
The changes that occur in the regulation of cell growth and division of cancer cells are due to mutations
Various environmental factors, such as, asbestos, tobacco products, ultraviolet radiation and X-rays can affect the occurrence of cancer cells.
Many homes built before 1980 contain asbestos in old floor tiles, ceiling tiles, roof shingles and flashing, siding, insulation (around boilers, ducts, pipes, sheeting, fireplaces), pipe cement,

43. Apoptosis Programmed cell death (lysosomes)
Cells going through apoptosis actually shrink and shrivel in a controlled process
Apoptosis can help to protect organisms from developing cancerous growths

44. - "Cells die either because they are harmful or because it takes less energy to kill them than to maintain them.
If cells are no longer needed, they commit suicide by activating an intracellular death program.
Skin cells are a very short-lived cell type, with an average lifespan of two weeks, olfactory neurons are replaced about every six weeks, and red blood cells make it for one hundred days before they are refreshed. 

45. Stem Cells
Unspecialized cells that can develop into specialized cells when under the right conditions -
- This type of treatment could be used to: replace neurons damaged by spinal cord injury, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease or other neurological problems; produce insulin that could treat people with diabetes and heart musclecells that could repair damage after a heart attack; or.

47. Stem Cells Embryonic Stem Cells Adult Stem Cells
After fertilization, the resulting mass of cells divides repeatedly until there are about cells. These cells have not become specialized.
Adult Stem Cells
Found in various tissues in the body and might be used to maintain and repair the same kind of tissue
Less controversial because the adult stem cells can be obtained with the consent of their donor

48. 9.3 Summary The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells is regulated by cyclins
Checkpoints occur during most of the stages of the cell cycle to ensure that the cell divides accurately
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and division of cells
Apoptosis is a programmed cell death
Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can develop into specialized cells with the proper signals