2. Bell Work
In __________ reinforcement, the reinforcer follows every correct response.
intermittent
partial
negative
continuous
positive

3. John Garcia
Taste Aversion

4. Learned Helplessness
Martin Seligman

5. Internal Locus of Control: consequences are a result of my own actions
I studied hard so I did well on the test.
I didn’t study hard enough so I failed the test.
“I am the master of my fate; I am the captain of my soul”
External Locus of Control: consequences are a result of other people’s actions, fate, etc.
I had my lucky socks on so I did well on the test.
The teacher didn’t teach us well enough so I failed the test.
“You can’t fight fate.”

6. Vicarious Conditioning: The learning of various attitudes, feelings, beliefs and emotions, not through direct exposure to a stimulus, but through observing how others react to it.
Your friend tells you a vivid story of getting bit by a snake. He/she is sweating, shaking, etc. as the story is being told. You now are afraid of snakes.
You see your sister get struck by lightning. You now have a fear of thunder storms.

7. Higher Order Conditioning (also known as Second Order Conditioning): Conditioning using a previously-conditioned CS
Advertisers use this by pairing images that evoke good feelings with images of their product(s)

8. The Acquisition Period (Timing)
Consideration #1: How much time passes between the conditioned stimulus (neutral) and the unconditioned stimulus (automatic). This will usually be a matter of seconds. The shorter the time lapse, the more likely the organism is to associate the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. If too much time passes, the association will never be made – conditioning will not take place.
Consideration #2: The number of times the conditioned stimulus (neutral) and the unconditioned stimulus (automatic) must be paired for the association to be made, and for a conditioned response to occur.
What Determines Whether & How a Conditioned Response is Learned???
TIMING - PREDICTABILITY - SIGNAL STRENGTH - ATTENTION
Immediate Consistent Severe - Attentive
Inconsistent (slow Acquisition/Extinction)
Timing is Everything!

11. The Concept of Reinforcement
Reinforcement is said to occur when a stimulus follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated.
(+) Positive Reinforcement
(-) Negative Reinforcement
Involves following an operant with the addition of an appetitive stimulus
A response is strengthened because something is added
Involves an operant that is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.
Response is strengthened because something is subtracted
Usually involves
(1) escaping aversive stimuli
(2) avoiding aversive stimuli
All Reinforcements (Positive & Negative) Increase The Likelihood
That The Behavior Will Occur Again In Future Situations.

12. 8 Examples of Negative Reinforcement
Taking aspirin (operant) to relieve a headache (stimulus).
Hurrying home in the winter (operant) to get out of the cold (stimulus).
Giving in to a dog’s begging (operant) so that it stops barking (stimulus).
Setting a timer on the oven (operant) to avoid burning the cookies (stimulus).
Leaving a movie theatre (operant) to escape the movie (stimulus).
Following prison rules (operant) in order to be released (stimulus).
Faking a stomachache (operant) in order to avoid school (stimulus).
Putting up an umbrella (operant) in order to escape the rain (stimulus).

13. The Concept of Punishment
Punishment is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
(-) Negative Punishment
(+) Positive Punishment
Also called punishment by removal
Some stimulus is subtracted or removed
Loss or withdrawal of an appetitive stimulus following a behavior
The behaviors consequence is the loss of some privilege, possession, or other desirable object or activity
Also called punishment by application
Response is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus
“Positive” signifies that something is added or presented in the situation
The stimulus is typically aversive
All Punishments (Positive & Negative) Reduce The Likelihood That
The Behavior Will Occur Again In Future Situations

14. Primary vs. Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
Secondary Reinforcers
Stimuli that are immediately rewarding
Naturally/innately reinforcing
No learning required
Satisfy a biological need
Less immediately satisfying
Less tangible than primary reinforcers
Also called “conditioned” reinforcers
Become reinforcing through association
Also called “learned” reinforcers
Food
Novel stimulation
Sexual pleasure
Sleep
Water
Entertainment
Warmth
Oxygen
Physical activity
Money
Success
Grades
Performance
Attention
Feedback
Praise
Prestige
Conditioned Reinforcers Come Into Existence Not Through Operant Conditioning,
But Instead Through Classical Conditioning.

15. Considerations in Using Punishment
Punishment in itself does not teach alternate acceptable behavior.
Punishment works only when applied consistently.
Severely punished individuals may attempt to leave the environment.
Intense punishment can create anger and hostility.
Punishment may not be understood (especially by children).
Punishment may be imitated as a way to solve problems and conflicts.
Punishment could make the behavior occur more frequently.

16. Positive Reinforcement (Something Unpleasant)
The Consequence Matrix
Stimulus Type
Add a Stimulus
Remove a Stimulus
Appetitive Stimulus
(Something Desired)
Positive Reinforcement
Negative
Punishment
Aversive Stimulus
(Something Unpleasant)
Positive
Reinforcement
Positive & negative reinforcement increase the frequency of a behavior (the operant).
Positive & negative punishment decrease the frequency of a behavior (the operant).
Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus in order to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
Punishment involves the removal of an appetitive stimulus (negative) or addition of an aversive stimulus (positive) in order to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

17. Primary vs. Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
Secondary Reinforcers
Stimuli that are immediately rewarding
Naturally/innately reinforcing
No learning required
Satisfy a biological need
Less immediately satisfying
Less tangible than primary reinforcers
Also called “conditioned” reinforcers
Become reinforcing through association
Also called “learned” reinforcers
Food
Novel stimulation
Sexual pleasure
Sleep
Water
Entertainment
Warmth
Oxygen
Physical activity
Money
Success
Grades
Performance
Attention
Feedback
Praise
Prestige
Conditioned Reinforcers Come Into Existence Not Through Operant Conditioning,
But Instead Through Classical Conditioning.

18. Reinforcer Potency (What Makes Reinforcers Reinforcing?)
Reinforcer Potency (What Makes a Reinforcer Reinforcing?)
A. The Intuitive Variables
1. Strength of Consequences (Magnitude)
2. Timing of Consequences (Immediacy)
B. The Premack Principle
The Ability to Delay Gratification
A. Mischel’s Classic Study
B. Why Do People Engage in Behavior with Maladaptive Consequences?
Reinforcement hierarchy
David Premack
Walter Mischel
Would you prefer $100 Today or $1000 next year?

19. How do you reinforce a behavior That is not part of the organism’s Natural behavioral repertoire?
Definitions of Shaping (Successive Approximations)
Examples of Shaping (Successive Approximations)
Shaping is reinforcing successive approximations of the desired response.
Shaping is the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer approximations of the desired target behavior.
Shaping through successive approximations involves reinforcing any response that successively approximates and ultimately matches the desired response.
Rats don’t press levers!
Sea World (dolphin/goldfish training)
Working canines (drug dogs)
Teaching dance steps
Writing FR questions in AP Psych

20. FRQ
James is in a driver’s education course preparing to take his driving test. The course includes both book work and driving on the road to prepare students for a written test and a road test.
(a) Describe how each of the following might influence his ability to drive a car during the road test. Definitions without application do not score.
*Cognitive map (the maps/directions in our mind)
*Cerebellum (balance/body movement and coordination)
*Observational learning (learning by watching others)
 (b) Describe how each of the following are related to the results of the written test. Definitions without application do not score.
*Reticular formation in the brainstem (helps eyes to move/fixate on objects, relays ear/eye signals, alertness/sleepiness)
*Semantic memory (facts)