1. Ethics: Theory and Practice
Jacques P. Thiroux
Keith W. Krasemann

2. Absolutism Versus Relativism
Chapter Five
Absolutism Versus Relativism

3. Two Extremes
Absolutism maintains that there are absolute truths and, especially, absolute moral truths to which all human beings must adhere if they are to be moral

4. Two Extremes
Relativism maintains that there are no absolutes of any kind, but that everything, especially morality, is “relative” to specific cultures, groups, or even individuals

5. The Meaning of Absolute
Absolute essentially means “perfect in quality; complete; not limited by restriction or exceptions; not to be doubted or questioned – positive, certain, unconditional”
We apply this word to supernatural beings (e.g. gods); to laws of nature; to propositions; to law and morality; and, most important, to propositions, truth, and falsity

6. The Meaning of Relative
Relative essentially means that there are no values that cut across all cultures and peoples that are not relative to the specific place or person in and by which they are held

7. Cultural Relativism
Anthropological “facts” in support of cultural relativism:
Studies of both primitive/modern cultures revel an extreme variation in customs, manners, taboos, religions, moralities, daily habits, and attitudes
The moral beliefs and attitudes of human beings are absorbed from their time – what is socially accepted or sanctioned in their culture

8. Cultural Relativism Anthropological “facts” (cont’d):
People in different cultures tend to believe not merely that there is only one true morality, but also that that one true morality is the one they hold

9. Cultural Absolutism
Anthropological facts supporting cultural absolutism:
Similar moral principles exist in all societies, such as those concerning the preservation of human life, governing sexual behavior, prohibiting lying, and establishing reciprocal obligations between parents and children
People in all cultures have similar needs, such as the need to survive, to eat and drink, and to have sex

10. Cultural Absolutism
Anthropological facts supporting cultural absolutism (cont’d):
There are a great many similarities in situations and relationships in all cultures, such as having two parents of opposite sexes, competing with brothers and sisters, and participating in the arts, languages, religion, and family
There are a great many intercultural similarities in the areas of sentiment, emotion, and attitude, as with jealousy, love, and the need for respect

11. Criticisms of Anthropological Facts
Just because cultures differ about what is right and wrong does not mean that one culture is right whereas another is wrong
Just because a belief is learned from or accepted by a culture does not mean that it is true or false or that truth is relative only to specific societies

12. Criticisms of Anthropological Facts
Just because moral principles are similar in all societies does not mean that they are valid or absolute
Even if people have similar needs, sentiments, emotions, and attitudes, there is still a question of whether these should or should not be satisfied

13. Criticisms of Anthropological Facts
Just because there are similarities in cultural situations and relationships, it does not mean that these are the only morally correct situations and relationships in existence or that they are morally correct at all

14. Propositions and Truth
Truth applies to propositions that are meaningful statements describing states of affairs
A state of affairs is an occurrence, an event, or a happening
It is neither true or false
It either occurs or it does not occur

15. Propositions and Truth
A true proposition describes a state of affairs that was, is, or will be occurring
A false proposition describes a state of affairs that did not occur, is not occurring, or will not occur
Only propositions are true or false, never states of affairs – they either occur or do not occur

16. Are There Any Absolute Truths?
Truth is absolute and not relative to belief, knowledge, person, place, or time
If propositions are stated accurately, this will always hold
We may not know which propositions are true or false, but that really has nothing to do with whether propositions really are true or false

17. Types of Propositions
Analytic Propositions are truths that are known to be absolute, because we know the definitions and meanings of words
Ex. All triangles have three sides

18. Types of Propositions
Internal sense or intern state propositions are propositions we know to be true merely because we have the experience – we alone truly know our own internal states
Ex. I have a headache

19. Types of Propositions
Empirical, or external sense, propositions describe a state of affairs that occurs in the external world of which we have evidence through our external senses
There is a controversy in philosophy as to whether such propositions can be known to be true, but my own assumption is that some empirical propositions can be known to be absolutely true

20. Types of Propositions
Moral propositions are propositions about morality or those that have moral import
Ex. Human beings should never kill other human beings

21. The Emotive Theory
Are moral propositions ever absolutely true, and, further, can any human being know whether they are or not?
Some philosophers state that moral propositions have only emotive or noncognitive meanings; that is, they express only feelings or attitudes

22. General Problems with the Emotive Theory
John Hosper – Moral propositions have three aspects:
The purpose or intention of the person who utters moral propositions
The effect the propositions have on their hearers
The actual meaning of the propositions

23. Moral Propositions as Types of Empirical Propositions
These are empirical and rational in form
They are found in the larger class of propositions called “empirical”

24. Moral Propositions as Types of Empirical Propositions
Differing views:
Moral statements are not propositions at all; they are merely emotive utterances
Moral statements are propositions but cannot be known to be true or false because they are not based on fact

25. Moral Propositions as Types of Empirical Propositions
We are still confronted by the problem of matching propositions with the complexity of human thoughts, feelings, and actions; to do this, we must move from the concept of absolutes to that of “near or almost absolutes,” or “basic principles”

26. Moral Propositions as Types of Empirical Propositions
A basic principle, or near or almost absolute, because it is based upon an absolute moral proposition, should be adhered to unless some strong justification can authorize an exception to it