1. 3
Research

2. A Scientific Approach
Requires that a claim be based on theories backed up by empirical evidence from well-designed studies before conclusions are drawn
Is especially important in abnormal child psychology
A simple connection between cause and effect may be obscured by complex interactions and a combination of variables

3. A Scientific Approach (cont’d.)
Reasons for skepticism about research in abnormal child psychology
Experts frequently disagree
Studies appearing in mainstream media are oversimplified
Findings often conflict with one another
Research has led to different treatments— some have been helpful; some have had no effect; and some have been harmful

4. When Science is Ignored
Ineffective practices not based on scientific evidence may be used with potentially damaging effects
Pseudoscience demonstrates benefits through anecdotes or testimonials
The difference between science and pseudoscience is:
The quality of the evidence, how it was obtained, and how it is presented

5. The Research Process
Research in abnormal child psychology is a multistage process:
Developing a hypothesis on the basis of observation, theory, and previous findings
Identifying the sample to be studied, selecting measurement methods, and developing research design and procedures
Gathering and analyzing the data and interpreting the results

6. The Research Process (cont’d.)
Figure 3.1 The research process in abnormal child psychology
Source: Cengage Learning 2014

7. Nature and Distribution of Childhood Disorders
Epidemiological research is the study of incidence, prevalence, and co-occurrence of disorders
Incidence rates: the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a specified time period
Prevalence rates: all cases (new and existing) observed during a specified time period

8. Correlates, Risks, and Causes
Correlates: variables associated at a particular point in time
No clear proof that one precedes the other
Risk factors: variables that precede an outcome of interest
Increase the chance of a negative outcome
Protective factors: variables that precede an outcome of interest
Decrease the chance of a negative outcome

9. Moderating and Mediating Variables
Moderating variables influence the direction or strength of the relationship of variables of interest
Have an independent effect on the existing relationship between two variables
Mediating variables impact the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome
Account for some or all of the apparent relationship between two variables

10. Example of a Moderator Variable
Figure 3.2 Example of a moderator variable: Sex of the child moderates the relationship between abuse and internalizing problems.
Source: Cengage Learning 2014

11. Mediating Variables
Figure 3.3 Mediating variables: The type of discipline used by mothers on days they are feeling distressed mediates the relationship between maternal distress and child behavior problems
Source: Cengage Learning 2016

12. Interventions Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) Treatment efficacy
Children are randomly assigned to different treatment and control conditions
Treatment efficacy
Whether a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled (research) conditions
Treatment effectiveness
Whether the treatment can be shown to work in clinical practice

13. Methods of Studying Behavior
Standardization
A process that specifies a set of standards or norms for a method of measurement
Reliability: the consistency or repeatability of results
Internal consistency: measurement method remains the same
Interrater reliability: agreement of observers
Test-retest reliability: results between tests are stable over time

14. Methods of Studying Behavior (cont’d.)
Validity
Face validity: the extent to which a measure appears to assess the construct of interest
Construct validity: whether scores on a measure behave as predicted
Convergent validity: reflects the correlation between related measures
Discriminant validity: the degree of correlation between unrelated measures

15. Validity (cont’d.)
Criterion-related validity: how well a measure predicts behavior in specific settings
At the same time (concurrent validity)
In the future (predictive validity)

16. Value of Methods and Measurement
Figure 3.4 Concepts that determine the value of our methods of measurement and assessment
Source: Cengage Learning 2016

17. Measurement Methods Interviews Questionnaires
Checklists and rating scales
Psychophysiological recordings
Brain imaging
Performance measures

18. Measurement Methods (cont’d.)
Direct observations of behavior
Intellectual, academic, and neuropsychological tests

19. Interview, Questionnaire, and Observation
Table 3.1 Interview, Questionnaire, and Observation
Source: Cengage Learning 2013

20. Reporting Methods
Assess perceptions, thoughts, behaviors, feelings, and past experiences of the child, parents, and teachers
Includes unstructured clinical interviews, highly structured diagnostic interviews, and questionnaires
A self-report measure provides information about one’s own behavior, feelings, and thoughts

21. Reporting Methods (cont’d.)
Informant-report measure - someone who knows the child well provides information based on observation
Inaccuracies may occur - failure to recall events, selective recall or bias, etc.
Requires verbal ability - not reliable with young children
Must be sensitive to the language and cultural background of person being evaluated

22. Psychophysiological Methods
Assess the relationship between physiological processes and behavior
Autonomic nervous system activity
Examples: heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupil dilation, and electrical skin conductance
Limitations
Inconsistent findings; inference often involved; and susceptibility to extraneous influences
Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the brain’s electrical activity

23. Neuroimaging Methods
Structural brain imaging procedures study brain anatomy
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - radio signals produce fine-grained analyses of brain structures
Coaxial tomography (CT) scan reveals various brain structures

24. Neuroimaging Methods (cont’d.)
Functional brain imaging procedures study brain functioning
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) registers neural activity in functioning areas of the brain
Positron emission tomography (PET) scans assess cerebral glucose metabolism
Diffusion MRI produces images showing connections between brain regions

25. Observational Methods
Benefits of structured observations
Are cost-effective
Allow for focused attention
Are useful for studying infrequent behavior
Allow for greater control over the situation
Limitation of structured observations
Uncertainty of whether the observations are a representative sample of behavior

26. Research Strategies Internal validity External validity
The extent to which a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for the findings
External validity
The degree to which findings can be generalized to other people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics

27. Research Strategies (cont’d.)
Identifying the sample
A careful definition of the sample is critical
Comorbidity: the simultaneous occurrence of two or more disorders
Random selection is rare in child psychopathology studies
Child studies often use samples of convenience

28. General Research Strategies
Nonexperimental and experimental research
One goal is to simplify and isolate variables to study them more closely
Characteristics of true experiments
Researchers have maximum control over the independent variable
Subjects are randomly assigned
Needed control conditions are applied
Possible bias sources are controlled

29. Nonexperimental and Experimental Research (cont’d.)
Correlational studies examine relationships among variables
Causality cannot be determined
Random assignment of participants to treatment conditions:
Helps control for participant characteristics
Natural experiments involve comparisons between conditions that already exist

30. Prospective and Retrospective Research
Retrospective designs
Sample is identified at the current time and asked for information relating to an earlier time
Data are highly susceptible to bias and distortion in recall

31. Prospective and Retrospective Research (cont’d.)
Real-time prospective designs
Sample is identified and followed over time
Data is collected at specified time intervals
Problems related to bias and distortion in recall are minimized
These designs are time consuming and susceptible to sample attrition

32. Analogue Research
Evaluates a specific variable under conditions that approximate the situation for which one wishes to generalize
Focus is on a circumscribed research question under well-controlled conditions
It is difficult to know if similar effects would occur in real-life circumstances

33. Research Designs Case Study
Involves an intensive, anecdotal, observation and analysis of an individual child
Rich source of descriptive information
Viewed as unscientific and flawed
Characterized by uncontrolled methods and selective biases; by inherent difficulties integrating observations and drawing valid inferences; and by generalizations from one child to other children

34. Research Designs (cont’d.)
Single-Case Experimental Designs
Applicable in evaluating the impact of a clinical treatment
Involves systematic repeated assessment of behavior over time
The subject serves as own control
Limitations
Possible interactions between treatment and subject characteristics; limited generalization of findings; and subjectivity in evaluating the data

35. A-B-A-B (reversal) design
Figure 3.5 A-B-A-B (reversal) design: treatment of Ann’s self-injurious behavior.
Source: Adapted from Use of Negative Reinforcement in the Treatment of Self-Injurious Behavior by M.W. Steege, D.P. Wacker, K.C. Cigrand, W.K. Berg, G.C. Novak, T.M. Reimers, G.M. Sasso & A. DeRaad, 1990, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, Copyright © 1990 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc.

36. Multiple-Baseline Design Across Situations
Figure 3.6 Multiple-baseline design across situations: treatment of Dennis’s self-injurious behavior.
Source: Adapted from Use of Negative Reinforcement in the Treatment of Self-Injurious Behavior by M.W. Steege, D.P. Wacker, K.C. Cigrand, W.K. Berg, G.C. Novak, T.M. Reimers, G.M. Sasso & A. DeRaad, 1990, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, Copyright © 1990 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc.

37. Research Designs (cont’d.)
Between-group comparison designs compare experimental and control groups
Cross-sectional/longitudinal studies look at change over time
Cross-sectional: individuals at different ages or periods of development are studied at the same point in time
Longitudinal: individuals are studied over time at different ages or periods of development

38. Research Designs (cont’d.)
Qualitative Research
Focuses on narrative accounts, description, interpretation, context, and meaning
Purpose is to describe, interpret, and understand the phenomenon of interest
In the context in which it is experienced
May be biased by researcher’s values and preferences
Findings cannot be generalized to other individuals

39. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues
Informed consent
Before agreeing to participate, all participants must be fully informed of the nature of the research, including:
Risks, benefits, expected outcomes, alternatives, and option to withdraw from the study at any time
Minor’s consent must be obtained from parents or legal guardian

40. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.)
Assent
The child agrees to participate
Must be obtained if a child is around age 7 or older

41. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.)
Voluntary Participation
Participation in research must be voluntary
Researcher must balance successful recruiting with not placing pressure on potential participants

42. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.)
Confidentiality and anonymity
Disclosed information must be kept confidential
Individuals must be advised about any exceptions
Disclosures of abuse are a common problem in child research
Nonharmful procedures
Should not cause physical or psychological harm

43. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.)
Other ethical and pragmatic concerns
Ethical concerns
Longitudinal research - may involve unexpected crises, unforeseen consequences of research, and issues about continuing the research that affect a child’s well-being