1. Liberal Democracies:
How democratic?

2. The question:
To what extent are liberal democracies really democratic?
Subject to popular control?
Responsive to their citizens?
Are they different from authoritarian systems?
If so, how?

3. The problem (1)
Liberal democracy is defined as government “of the people, by the people, and for the people,” but
In most liberal democracies, the people are not in direct control
Instead, most governing is done by the few…
Legislators who exercise minimal control over ministers
Ministers who exercise minimal control over bureaucrats
Bureaucrats who take more of the decisions

4. The problem (2) In addition: Those who govern are
put there by political parties, themselves oligarchical
Surrounded by interest groups
Which press the demands of those they represent, rather than the public as a whole
Public not necessarily interested or attentive

5. Assessing democracy: How responsive is the system?
Do legislators, members of the political executive and bureaucrats respond to public demands?
If so..
What kinds?
Under what circumstances?
How effective is the electoral process?
Does the public have the last say over
The content public policy?
Who actually governs?

6. Degree of democratic control depends on:
Political parties & the alternatives they pose
The electoral system and the extent to which it facilitates decisive outcomes.
Is it possible to “throw the bums out” in
Two party systems?
Multiparty systems?
Is there a tradeoff between decisiveness and representation?

7. Some contrasts: Does electorate have the last say in either
Adversarial democracies? UK
Canada
France
Consensus-seeking democracies?
Germany
Netherlands
Election of 2002

8. Some cures? Referenda, but utility limited by
Extent of public interest and information
Possible use and manipulation by interest groups – the case in Switzerland
More frequent elections…but can result in
Greater dependency on political money
Insufficient time to make decisions
More openness:
Secret v. open government
The Swedish experience

9. Bottom line:
Day-to-day democratic control limited in most liberal democracies, but, free and fair elections
Gives the electorate last say if they care to exercise it
Forces governments to be (or at least pretend to be) responsive to the public at large, as well as demands of interest groups
Openness helps – forces decisions to be justified
Authoritarian regimes can also be responsive
but typically only to a narrower segment of the population -- those who put the regime in power and sustain it.

10. Conclusion:
Liberal democracy is the worst form of government, except for all the others that have been tried (Churchill)