1. Realism and Materialism

2. The realists refocused their attention on the work as it really was
For writers and artists of the second half of the 19th century, industrialization and technology dominated the lives of Europeans

3. Art and Literature
Writers turned from Romantic themes to the lives of those directly affected by a changing material reality
Characters in novels struggled to understand and cope with the impersonal forces of economic and social change

4. Realist writers abandoned the conventions of Romantic rhetoric in favor of an unsentimental, precise style
Realist artists turned their canvases into windows on the lives of the downtrodden
Revealing the difficult circumstances of landless peasants and exhausted factory workers

5. As photography developed throughout the century, an additional medium became available to depict difficult social problems

6. Positivism
As the influence of organized religion declined in Europe, many substituted a belief in the potential of science
French philosopher Auguste Comte captured this faith with his theory of positivism

7. He believed that history had progressed through three stages – the theological, the metaphysical, and the scientific
Progress must rely on a hard-nosed and empirical investigation of reality, avoiding wishful thinking and unsupported generalizations
Comte categorized all the sciences and argued for a science of society

8. Marxism Studied philosophy and law in college
Eventually fell in with German radicals
Hailed the revolutions of 1848 as the beginning of a socialist age

9. His life long collaborator was Friedrich Engels, the song of a German textile owner, who rebelled against his inheritance
Together the two produced The Communist Manifesto
Established the outlines of Marxian socialism and a program of nationalization of property, universal suffrage and redistribution of property

10. Established the First International in 1864 to promote a union of working class parties
In Capital, Marx and Engels wove together German philosophy, British industrialization and French radicalism into one critique of capitalism

11. The Pillars of Marxian Socialism
Alienation of labor
Labor theory of value
Dialectical Materialism
Class Struggle
Revolution

12. Marx exercised wide influence among all working class movements, both revolutionary and democratic
Many claimed that the appeal of Marxism lies in its similarity to an organized religion