1. biomolecules Building Block Uses Examples Test Carbohydrate
Simple sugars
Ready source of energy
Glucose
Glycogen
Cellulose
Starch
STARCH turns black in iodine
SUGARS react with Benedict’s Solution (orange)
Protein
Amino acids
Transport
Speed up reactions
Immunity
Cell communication
Enzymes
(-ase)
Hemoglobin
Antibodies
Protein hormones (insulin)
Reacts with Biuret Solution (violet)
Lipid
Fatty Acids
Back up energy source
In membrane
Fats, oils
Leaves oily spot on brown paper bag
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotide
Store and transmit genetic info
DNA, RNA
DNA stains (methylene blue)

2. CELLS EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC
Eukaryotic cells have their DNA surrounded by a membrane.  (They have a nucleus). 
Two examples shown are plant cells and animal cells, but fungi and protists are also eukaryotic
Notice, plants have chloroplasts (for photosynthesis) and cell walls made of cellulose. Animal cells don't have these parts.  Also, plant cells have a larger vacuole for storage. 
Both plants and animals have mitochondria to make ATP.
All eukaryotic cells have ribosomes to make protein
These cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells have DNA and ribosomes, but they have no internal membranes! (They don't have a nucleus)
They have ribosomes to make proteins
These are the simplest cells
Examples are bacteria, like those that cause strep throat.

3. Diffusion Osmosis Active Transport CELL TRANSPORT
Movement from high to low concentration
No energy required
Osmosis
Movement of water from high to low WATER concentration across a membrane
Active Transport
Movement from LOW concentration to HIGH concentration
USES ATP ENERGY

4. Enzymes are specific for reactions bind to substrate at active site
are not changed in the reaction
speed up reactions
are made of PROTEIN
are reusable
Enzymes

5. Mitosis and Meiosis Meiosis mitosis One division Two divisions 2n  2n
(same number of chromosomes)
Results in 2 genetically identical cells
Two divisions
2n  n
Half the number of chromosomes
Results in 4 DIFFERENT haploid cells
Forms gametes (egg and sperm)

6. DNA DNA is a polymer of nucleotides.
A nucleotide is made up of three parts: a sugar, a phosphate and one of four bases
In DNA, the bases are A, T, C, and G
DNA’s shape is a double helix
The two strands are held together by HYDROGEN bonds
A binds to T
C binds with G

7. DNA Replication Process of DNA copying itself Steps
DNA Unzips (Hydrogen bonds break)
Each side acts as a template
New DNA nucleotides are added according to base-pairing rules
Two new molecules of DNA result – each with one old and one new strand.
Happens in INTERPHASE (before mitosis or meiosis)

8. DNA  mRNA  protein Protein Synthesis Made of amino acids
Remember, genes are made of DNA and are in the nucleus
Genes (DNA) contain the instruction for making  a protein
In transcription, DNA is used to make mRNA in the nucleus
mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome
In translation, tRNA then brings amino acids in the proper order to make the protein on the ribosome.
DNA  mRNA  protein
Made of amino acids

9. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS DNA RNA PROTEIN DNA is in nucleus
GENES (made of DNA) hold code for protein
DNA=A,T,G,C
RNA
mRNA is made in nucleus
TRANSCRIPTION
Remember base pairing rules (RNA=A,U,G,C)
PROTEIN
mRNA goes to ribosome
3 bases on mRNA is a codon – each codon codes for one amino acid
tRNA brings the right amino acid to the mRNA
Anticodon on tRNA base pairs with codon on mRNA

10. Can you IDENTIFY the parts?
DNA
mRNA
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Ribosome
Codon
Anticodon
tRNA
Amino acid
Protein (polypeptide)

11. READING THE CODON CHART
Be sure to use mRNA
You won’t have to memorize this!
What amino acid is coded for by the DNA
ATA GAG
First convert DNA to mRNA
ATA GAG UAU CUC
UAU = Tyr
CUC = Leu

12. Genetics
We have two genes for each trait – this is our GENOTYPE One gene came from mom, one from dad If the genes are alike, the individual is homozygous (RR, rr) If the genes are different , they are heterozygous (Rr) Some genes are dominant and others are recessive We only show a recessive trait if we have no dominant gene *RR and Rr would “look” dominant *rr would look recessive
This diagram shows the cross between 2 heterozygous purple flowers Cross is: Bb x Bb Notice that 75% are purple and 25% white

13. Sex Linkage
-Females are XX -Males are XY -Sex-linked traits are on X chromosome -Trait is more common in MALES -Examples are colorblindness and hemophilia (blood fails to clot)
Males give X chromosomes to their daughters and Y’s to their sons
Moms give X’s to both daughters and sons

14. CODOMINANCE – BLOOD TYPE
Four blood types
A, B, AB, O
Three different alleles: A, B or neither
A = AA or AO B = BB or BO AB = AB O = OO

15. PEDIGREES
Is the disorder dominant or recessive? Dominant: one parent will always have the disorder. Recessive: parents can be carriers. Is the disorder autosomal or sex- linked? Autosomal: both sexes effected equally. Sex-Linked: males effected more.

16. KARYOTYPE XY = male In humans, 22 pair of autosomes
A chart showing arrangement of chromosomes
In humans, 22 pair of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes
XX = female
XY = male
Extra chromosomes a result of non-disjunction
Chromosome pairs fail to separate in meiosis
One example is DOWN SYNDROME (extra 21)
Another example is KLINEFELTERS (XXY)
3 21’s = Down Syndrome

17. EVOLUTION – change over time
EVIDENCE
Natural Selection
Fossil evidence
Fossils found in sedimentary rock
Lower level fossils are older and more PRIMITIVE
We can compare fossils to modern organisms
Similar structure suggests common ancestor
Biochemical evidence
DNA and protein similarities suggest common ancestor
Credited to Charles Darwin
Organisms in populations have variations that can be passed from generation to generation
More organisms born that environment can support
Organisms compete for resources
Those organisms with favorable variations have more babies and the population evolves

18. Which type of plant is most closely related to flowering plants?
Cladograms
Determining evolutionary relationships
Which type of plant is most closely related to flowering plants?
CONIFERS

19. History of classification systems
Aristotle – Plants and Animals
Linneaus – developed BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
TWO KINGDOMS: plants and animals
THREE kingdoms: plant, animal, Protist
FIVE kingdoms: plant, animal, Protist, fungi, Moneran (eubacteria/archebacteria

20. CLASSIFICATION Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Scientific name is genus and species name. Organisms in same genus are closely related

21. FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
Moneran (Eu- + Arche-)
Bacteria
Prokaryotic
No nucleus
Have cell wall
Unicellular
Can be heterotrophic or autotrophic
Protist
Protozoans, algae
Eukaryotic
Have nucleus
Some have cell wall
Mainly unicellular
Fungi
Mushroom, yeast
Mainly multicellular
heterotrophic
Plant
Moss, fern, trees, flowers
All multicellular
autotrophic
Animal
Sponge, annelids, amphibians, birds, mammals
No cell wall

22. Dichotomous key Always begin with #1
Follow directions using choices given
What shape is “Gina”?
Equilateral triangle

23. Photosynthesis and Respiration
Converts sunlight to chemical energy
Converts energy in food (glucose) to ATP
Cellular Respiration
Takes place in mitochondrion
Releases the energy stored in glucose
AKA aerobic respiration (NEEDS oxygen)

24. AEROBIC vs Anaerobic RESPIRATION
Requires oxygen
Makes A LOT of ATP
Produces carbon dioxide and water
Happens in mitochondrion
Does not use oxygen
Makes only 2 ATP
Small amount of ATP
Also called fermentation
YEASTS make ethyl alcohol
BACTERIA and MUSCLE CELLS (w/o O2) make LACTIC ACID
Happens in cytoplasm (cytosol)

25. Atp cYCLE

26. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS
Includes abiotic and biotic factors
Biomes are examples
Community
Includes all the LIVING things
Population
All of one species in one area
Can reproduce with each other

27. Food CHAINS Energy is “lost” as you mover “up” the food chain
Secondary Consumer
(bird)
Primary Consumer
(snail)
Producer
(grass)
Original source of energy for most chains is the sun 1st trophic level is producer 2nd trophic level is primary consumer 2rd trophic level is secondary consumer Decomposer not shown on chain, but they recycle nutrients
Energy is “lost” as you mover “up” the food chain

28. SYMBIOSIS Mutualism Parasitism Commensalism
In mutualism, BOTH organisms BENEFIT
this is a + / + relationship
The picture shows E. coli, a type of bacteria that live in your intestine. 
The bacteria get a place to live; we get the vitamin K they make.  This is good for both.
Parasitism
In parasitism, the PARASITE BENEFITS by getting food and shelter from the HOST
This is a + / - relationship
In the example shown, the TICK is the parasite and feeds off of the blood of the human HOST.  This is good for the tick, but bad for the human.
Commensalism
In commensalism, one organism BENEFITS while the other is NOT AFFECTED
This is a  +/ 0 relationship
The picture above shows orchids living in trees.  This is good for the orchid, because it allows the orchid to get sunlight. It doesn't affect the tree, because the orchid doesn't help or hurt it.

29. Predation Predator EATS Prey The populations cycle
Predator has lower curve
There can’t be more predators than prey

30. Population GROWTH
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
Logistic growth
J-curve Occurs when unlimited resources are available
S-curve Occurs because resources are limited Carrying capacity reached

31. HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
Overpopulation of humans leads to
Destruction of habitats (pollution and/or destroying)
Loss of biodiversity
Introduced species
Outcompete native species

32. Carbon CYCLE Greenhouse Effect
Cycling of carbon and oxygen
Three main processes
Photosynthesis – plants use carbon dioxide; produce oxygen
Respiration – uses oxygen, produces carbon dioxide (both plants and animals)
Combustion – burning – releases more carbon dioxide
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, making life possible
Increased carbon dioxide can make temperatures rise more
Human activities can lead to GLOBAL WARMING