1. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Psychology 7e in Modules

2. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
The Need for Psychological Science
The limits of Intuition and Common Sense
The Scientific Attitude
The Scientific Method

3. Impression of Psychology
With hopes of satisfying curiosity, many people listen to talk-radio counselors and psychics to learn about others and themselves.
Dr. Crane (radio-shrink)
Psychic (Ball gazing)

4. The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
Psychology 7e in Modules

5. Psychological Science
How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!

6. Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.
Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation

7. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.
Psychology 7e in Modules

8. Theory
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
Psychology 7e in Modules

9. Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

10. Research Observations
Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.

11. Is language uniquely human?
Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
Psychology 7e in Modules

12. Case Study Clinical Study
A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.

13. Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
Psychology 7e in Modules

14. Survey Wording Effect Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television?

15. Survey Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

16. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
Psychology 7e in Modules

17. Descriptive Methods Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors.

18. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Psychology 7e in Modules

19. Correlation and Causation
OBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.
Psychology 7e in Modules

20. Correlation and Causation

21. Exploring Cause and Effect
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
OBJECTIVE 12| Explain how experiments help researchers isolate cause and effect.
Psychology 7e in Modules

22. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control. Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

23. Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process. For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.

24. Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Psychology 7e in Modules

25. Experiment Research Method
Experimental group – the group that the independent variable is applied.
Control group
the group that the independent variable IS NOT applied to.

26. Evaluating Therapies Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double-blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter’s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo.
Psychology 7e in Modules

27. Problems and Solutions in Research
Self-fulfilling prophecy –
where expectations effect behavior unknowingly.
Read “Was she doomed” P.42

28. Problems and Solutions in Research
The Placebo Effect
The belief in the cure that changes behavior.

29. Problems and Solutions in Research
Single-blind experiment
study in which participants are unaware of which get treatment.
Double-blind experiment
study in which both experimenters and participants are unaware of which participants receive treatment

30. A summary of steps during experimentation.

31. Describing Data
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can misrepresent data.
Psychology 7e in Modules

32. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together. Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores.
Psychology 7e in Modules

34. Ethical Issues
Protecting Participants: confidentiality, signing wavers, dignity and welfare
Obeying Laws
Minimizing factors that lead to misleading results.
Providing results.