1. Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations
Chapter 2
Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations
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2. The Quest for Order Growth of urban societies
Political/military systems
Social stratification
Economic specialization
Religion
Communications
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3. Mesopotamia “The land between the rivers” Modern-day Iraq
Tigris and Euphrates
Modern-day Iraq
Reservoirs, canals, and irrigation
Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 B.C.E.
By 5000 B.C.E., complex irrigation networks
Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 B.C.E.
Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture
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4. Early Mesopotamia, 3000–2000 B.C.E.
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5. Sumerian City-States Cities began to appear 4000 B.C.E.
Dominated region from 3200 to 2350 B.C.E.
Ziggurats: temples and altars to local deities
Uruk
Irrigation systems
Defense from nomadic marauders
Absolute monarchies

6. The Course of Empire
Regional empires emerged as Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia began to overshadow Sumer
Sargon of Akkad (2370–2315 B.C.E.)
Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, creating empire based in Akkad
Military juggernaut to maintain control
Hammurabi of Babylon (1792–1750 B.C.E.)
Improved taxation, legislation
Used local governors to maintain control of city-states
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7. Hammurabi’s Laws
Established high standards of behavior and stern punishment for violators
Lex talionis—“law of retaliation”
Social status and punishment
Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from Anatolia, ca B.C.E.

8. The Later Mesopotamian Empires
Weakening of central rule invited foreign invaders
Assyrians’ use of new iron weaponry
During eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E., controlled Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Anatolia, most of Egypt
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (r. 605–562)
Took advantage of internal dissent to create Chaldean (New Babylonian) empire
Famously luxurious capital
Nebuchadnezzar by William Blake

10. Mesopotamian Empires, 1800–600 B.C.E.
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11. Economic Specialization and Trade
Bronze (copper with tin), ca B.C.E.
Military, agricultural applications
Iron, ca B.C.E.
Cheaper than bronze
Wheel, boats, ca B.C.E.
Shipbuilding increased trade networks

12. Social Classes Ruling classes based often on military prowess
Perceived as offspring of gods
Priestly elites
Role: intervention with gods to ensure good fortune
Considerable landholdings, other economic activities
Free commoners
Peasant cultivators, some urban professionals
Slaves
Prisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors
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14. Patriarchal Society Men as landowners, relationship to status
Power to sell wives, children
Double standard of sexual morality
Women drowned for adultery
Relaxed sexual mores for men
Yet some possibilities for social mobility for women
Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity
Introduction of the veil by ca B.C.E.

15. The Development of Writing
Sumerians first experimented with pictographs
About 2900 B.C.E., Sumerians developed more flexible writing system
Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped”
Preservation of documents on clay
Declined in fourth century B.C.E. with spread of Greek alphabetic script

16. Education and Science
With cuneiform writing, formal schools established
Literacy led to rapid expansion of knowledge
Astronomy
Mathematics
Agricultural applications
Mesopotamian conventions:
Twelve months in a year
Sixty-minute hours, sixty-second minutes
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17. The Epic of Gilgamesh
Writing also used to reflect on religious and intellectual problems
Epic of Gilgamesh compiled after 2000 B.C.E.
Heroic saga
Themes of friendship, relations with gods, meaning of life and inevitability of death

18. The Early Hebrews
According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca B.C.E.
Parallels between early biblical texts, code of Hammurabi
Branch of Hebrews under Moses traveled to Palestine ca B.C.E.
On-going conflict with indigenous populations
King David (1000–970 B.C.E.) and King Solomon (970–930 B.C.E.)
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19. Moses and Monotheism
Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other Mesopotamian civilizations
Moses taught monotheism, belief in single god
Denied existence of competing parallel deities
Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity with revealed law
The Torah (“doctrine” or “teaching”)
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20. Conquests of Israel Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E.
Conquered the northern kingdom
Deported many inhabitants to other regions
Many exiles assimilated and lost their identity
Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E.
Destroyed Jerusalem
Forced many into exile
Israelites maintained their religious identity; many returned to Judea
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21. Israel and Phoenicia, 1500–600 B.C.E.
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22. The Phoenicians
City-states along Mediterranean coast after B.C.E.
Extensive maritime trade
Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200–800 B.C.E.
Development of alphabetic script
Simpler alternative to cuneiform
Spread of literacy
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23. The Indo-European Migrations
Common roots of many languages of Europe, southwest Asia, India
Implies influence of a single Indo-European people
Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and Russia, 4500–2500 B.C.E.
Domestication of horses, Sumerian knowledge of metallurgy and wheels allowed them to spread widely
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24. Indo-European Migrations 3000–1000 B.C.E.
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25. Similarities in Vocabulary Indicating Close Relationships between Select Indo-European Languages
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26. Effects of Indo-European Expansion
Hittites migrated to central Anatolia ca B.C.E., later dominated Babylonia
War chariots with spoked wheels
Refinement of iron metallurgy
Significant migrations to western China, Greece, Italy, Iran, India
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