1. Physical Evidence
Chapter 3

2. Common Types

3. Blood, Semen, and Saliva
All suspected blood, semen, or saliva - liquid or dried, animal or human - present in a form to suggest a relation to the offense or persons involved in a crime.
These substances are subjected to serological and biochemical analysis for determination of identity and possible origin.

4. Documents
Any handwriting and typewriting submitted so that authenticity or source can be determined.
Related items include paper, ink, idented writings, obliterations, and burned or charred documents.

5. Drugs
Any substance seized in violation of laws regulating the sale, manufacture, distribution, and use of drugs.
This includes prescription drugs in the possession of a person different than it was prescribed for.

6. Explosives
Any device containing an explosive charge, as well as all objects removed from the scene of an explosion that are suspected to contain the residues of an explosive.

7. Fibers
Any natural or synthetic fiber whose transfer may be useful in establishing a relationship between objects and/or persons.

8. Fingerprints
All prints of this nature, latent and visible.

9. Firearms and Ammunition
Any firearm, as well as discharged or intact ammunition, suspected of being involved in a criminal offense.

10. Glass
Any glass particle or fragment that may have been transferred to a person or object involved in a crime.
Windowpanes containing holes made by a bullet or other projectile are included in this category.

11. Hair
Any animal or human hair present that could link a person with a crime.

12. Impressions
This category includes tire markings, shoe prints, depressions in soft soils, and all other forms of tracks.
Gloves and other fabric impressions, as well as bite marks in skin or foodstuffs, are also included.

13. Organs and Physiological Fluids
Body organs and fluids are submitted for toxicology to detect possible existence or lack of drugs and poisons.
This category includes blood to be analyzed for the presence of alcohol and other drugs.

14. Paint
Any paint, liquid or dried, that may have been transferred from the surface of one object to another during the commission of a crime.
A common example is the transfer of paint from one vehicle to another during an automobile collision.

15. Petroleum Products
Any petroleum product removed from a suspect or recovered from a crime scene.
The most common examples are gasoline residues removed from the scene of an arson, or grease and oil stains whose presence may suggest involvement in a crime.

16. Plastic Bags
A polyethylene disposable bas such as a garbage bag may be evidential in a homicide or drug case.
Examinations are conducted to associate a bag with a similar bag in the possession of a suspect.

17. Plastic, Rubber, or Other Polymers
Remnants of these man-made materials recovered at crime scenes may be linked to objects recovered in the possession of a suspect perpetrator.

18. Powder Residues
Any item suspected of containing firearm discharge residues.
This would also include objects that could possibly contain drug residue.

19. Serial Numbers
This category includes all stolen property submitted to the laboratory for the restoration of erased identification numbers.

20. Soil and Minerals
All items containing soil or minerals that could link a person or object to a particular location.
Common examples are soil imbedded in shoes and safe insulation found on garments.
Also used for determining the location of bodies prior to discovery.

21. Tool Marks
This category includes any object suspected of containing the impression of another object that served as a tool in a crime.
For example, a screwdriver or crowbar could produce tool marks by being impressed into or scraped along a surface of a wall.

22. Vehicle Lights
Examination of vehicle headlights and taillights is normally conducted to determine whether a light was on or off at the time of impact.
The light cover can also be matched to the pieces left at the scene of a hit and run.

23. Wood and Vegetative Matter
Any fragments of wood, sawdust, shavings, or vegetative matter discovered on clothing, shoes, or tools that could link a person or object to a crime location.

24. Significance of Physical Evidence
Physical evidence examination is done for the purpose of identification of comparison

25. Identification
Identification is the determination of physical or chemical identity of a substance with as near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques will permit.

26. Process of Identification
Requires the adoption of testing procedures that give characteristic results for specific standard materials.
Ex. Heroin
Requires that the number and type of tests needed to identify a substance be sufficient to exclude all other substances.

27. Simple rules cannot be devised for defining what constitutes a thorough and foolproof analytical scheme.
Because the technician has little or no control over the quality and quantity of the specimens received, a standard series of tests cannot encompass all possible problems and pitfalls.
It is left to the forensic scientist to determine at what point the analysis can be concluded and the criteria for positive identification satisfied.
Ultimately, the conclusion will have to substantiated beyond any reasonable doubt in a court of law.

28. Comparison
Subjects a suspect specimen and a standard/reference specimen to the same tests and examinations for the ultimate purpose of determining whether or not they have a common origin.
Ex. May place a suspect at a particular location by noting the similarities of a hair found at the scene to hairs removed from suspect’s head.

29. Comparison - Two-steps
First, combinations of select properties are chosen from the suspect and the standard/reference specimen for comparison.
Second, the forensic scientist must be prepared to render a conclusion with respect to the origins of the specimens.

30. Evidential Value Probability plays a major role.
Probability is the frequency of occurrence of an event.
Probability defines the odds at which a certain event will occur.
Ex. Flip a coin 100 times and you would expect heads to show up 50% or 50 out of 100 times.

31. Characteristics
Individual - properties of evidence that can be attributed to a common source with an extremely high degree of certainty.
Class - properties of evidence that can only be associated with a group and never with a single source.

32. Individual Characteristics
Examples
matching ridge patterns of two fingerprints: 1 out of 1x1060
random striation markings on bullets or tool marks
irregular and random wear patterns in tires or footwear
handwriting
irregular edges of broken objects
It is not possible to state with mathematical exactness the probability that the specimens are of common origin; it can only be concluded that this probability is so high as to defy mathematical calculations or human comprehension.

33. Class Characteristics
Limitations of forensic science is the frequent inability of the laboratory to relate physical evidence to a common origin with a high degree of certainty.
Ex. Comparing two one-layer paint chips of similar color can only be matched to the model of the car where as if you have two seven-layer paint chips, not all of which were the original paint colors of the car these can be matched to the same car.

34. Blood Another good example of class characteristics.
If only type is analyzed then can only match to population percentages.
If other blood factors are matched also then the probability increases that the two samples come from a common source.

35. Product Rule
Multiplying together the frequencies of independently occurring genetic markers to obtain an overall frequency of occurrence for a genetic profile.
Importantly, modern DNA technology provides a sufficient number of factors to allow blood, semen, and other biological materials to be individualized to a single person.

36. Limitation with Probability
Forensic science has the inability of assigning exact or even approximate probability values to the comparison of most class physical evidence.
Ex. Nylon fiber originating from a particular sweater
Ex. Paint chip matching a specific car
Not enough statistical data to provide probabilities.

37. Physical Evidence
Most items of physical evidence retrieved at crime scenes cannot be linked definitively to a single person or object.
Criminal cases are fashioned for the courtroom around a collection of diverse elements, each pointing to the guilt or involvement of a party in a criminal act.
The value of class physical evidence lies in its ability to provide corroboration of events with data that are, as nearly as possible, free of human error and bias.

38. Physical Evidence
When dealing with more than one type of class evidence, though individually they hold little probability, when put together with all of the class evidence their collective presence may lead to an extremely high certainty that they originated from the same source.
The weight or significance accorded physical evidence is a determination left entirely to the trier of fact, usually a jury of laypersons.
May also serve to exclude or exonerate a person from suspicion.

39. Class vs. Individual
It is difficult to distinguish just when a piece of physical evidence crosses over from class to individual.
Ex. How many striations are necessary to individualize a mark to a single tool?
Ex. How many layers individualize a paint chip to a single car?
Modern analytical techniques have become so sophisticated and sensitive that the criminalist must be careful to define the limits of natural variation that exist among materials when interpreting the data gathered from a comparative analysis.

40. Crime-Scene Reconstruction
Forensic scientists play an important role in participating with a team effort to reconstruct events that have occurred prior, during, and subsequent to the commission of a crime.
Reconstructing entails a collaborrative effort that includes experienced law enforcement personnel, medical examiners, and criminalists.

41. Reconstruction
The method used to support a likely sequence of events by the observation and evaluation of physical evidence, as well as statements made by those involved with the incident.
The physical evidence left behind at a crime scene plays a crucial role in reconstructing the events that took place surrounding the crime.

42. Reconstruction
Information obtained from physical evidence can also generate leads and confirm the reconstruction of a crime scene to a jury.
The collection and documentation (notes) of physical evidence is the foundation of a reconstruction.

43. Reconstruction
Each scene presents the investigator with its own set of circumstances.
The investigator’s experience and the presence or absence of physical evidence become critical factors in reconstruction.
The investigator captures the nature of the scene as a whole by performing an initial walk- through of the scene and contemplating the events that took place.

44. Reconstruction Uses the following:
laser beam to plot the approximate bullet path
blood spatter analysis
determine the direction of impact of projectiles
locating gunshot residue deposited on clothing
primer residue deposited on the hands of suspect
Involves putting the puzzle pieces together.

45. Reconstruction
The right connections have to be made among all the parts involved so as to portray the relationship among the victim, the suspect, and the crime scene.
If successful, reconstruction can play a vital role in aiding a jury to arrive at an appropriate verdict.