1. The Sociological Perspective
Chapter 1
The Sociological Perspective
Scientific Method, Theoretical Perspectives, and Research Designs

2. Comparing Basic and Applied Sociology
Continuing Tension:
Comparing Basic and Applied Sociology
The American Sociological Association (ASA) is attempting to promote a middle ground between basic and applied sociology in the form of public sociology.
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3. Tradition v.s. Science
Common sense: The ability to act on the obvious.
Scientific method: The use of objective, systematic observations to test theories.
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4. Emile Durkheim: The Scientific Breakthrough
Durkheim achieved a scientific breakthrough in his 1897 study entitled Suicide. Showed that an act considered the most personal of all was influenced by social integration– the degree to which people are tied to their group.
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5. Durkheim (Cont.)
1). Egoistic Suicide: Occurs when individual has low sense of group solidarity and lack of involvement with others. Loneliness and commitment to own personal beliefs rather than group values can lead to suicide.
2). Altruistic Suicide: Occurs as a result of high group involvement with others. Individual so tied to set of goals willing to die for the group under certain conditions.
3). Anomic Suicide: Results from individual feeling disconnected from society's values. Occurs when individual knows the goals to strive for but can't achieve them, is uncertain about them, or doesn’t know what goals to pursue. Most prevalent in times of rapid social change or economic crisis.
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6. Theory
General statement about how some parts of world fit together. Explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another.
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7. Theoretical Perspectives
Symbolic interactionism
Symbols, things to which we attach meaning, are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another.
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8. Theoretical Perspectives
Symbols: Anything that meaningfully represents something else. Through them can define relationships and coordinate actions with others.
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9. Theoretical Perspectives
Functional Analysis (Functionalism or Structural-Functionalism)
Society is a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that work together.
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10. Theoretical Perspectives
Functional Analysis
Must look at structure (how the parts of society fit together), and function (how each part contributes to the maintenance of society as a whole).
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11. Theoretical Perspectives
Functional Analysis
Robert Merton: Used function to refer to the beneficial consequences of people’s actions to keep a group in balance, and dysfunction to refer to consequences that undermined stability. Functions can either be manifest (actions that are intended) or latent (unintended consequences).
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12. Theoretical Perspectives
Conflict Theory
A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce resources.
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13. Theoretical Perspectives
Karl Marx: focused on struggle between the bourgeoisie (the capitalists who own the means of production) and the proletariat (the masses of workers exploited by the capitalists).
Contemporary conflict theorists (e.g. Lewis Croser and Ralf Darendhorf) have expanded this perspective to include struggles in all relations of power and authority.
Many feminists stress a similar conflict between males and females in terms of social, political, and economic relations.
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14. Theoretical Perspective
Three Major Sociological Theoretical Pespectives
Theoretical Perspective
Level of Analysis
Focus of Analysis
Key Terms
Main Questions
Functional Analysis
(Also called Structural Functionalism)
Macroscoiological: examines large scale patterns of society
Relationships among the parts of society. How these parts have beneficial consequences (functions) or negative consequences (dysfunctions)
Structure
Functions (manifest, latent)
Dysfunctions
Equilibrium
What are the consequences of a social pattern? What contributions do they make for individuals and society as a whole?
Conflict Theory
(Marxism and Feminism
variants)
The struggle for control over scarce resources by groups in society, and how dominant groups use power to control weaker groups.
Inequality
Competition
Exploitation
Resources (power, wealth, prestige)
Ideology
False consciousness
Class consciousness
Who benefits from a social arrangement? Change and struggle considered norm for society.
Interactionist Theory
(Schools of thought include Symbolic Interactionism and Social Construction of Reality)
Microsociological: examines small-scale patterns of social interaction
Face-to-face interaction; how people use symbols to create social reality.
Symbols
Interaction (communication)
Meanings
Definition of situation
Societies consist of many small theaters where people act out the social drama. Shared meanings and understandings basis for understanding society.
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15. Doing Research Eight steps for ensuring objectivity of findings:
Selecting a topic to research
Defining the problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating a hypothesis
Choosing a research method or design
Collecting the data
Analyzing the results
Sharing the results

16. Doing Research
Variables: Factors that vary from one person or situation to the next.

17. Doing Research
Hypothesis: Prediction derived from theory. Predicts a relationship between two or more variables:
Independent variable: Something that influences or causes a change in another variable.
Dependent variable: A variable that might change in a study.

18. Doing Research Hypothesis (cont.)
Operational Definition: Precise ways of measuring variables.
Validity: Operational definition measures what it claims.
Reliability: Other researchers using
same definitions will come up similar findings.

19. Doing Research Population: Target group interested in studying.
Sample: Representative subset taken from population.
Random sample: Technique that gives every member of population the same opportunity to be included in sample.

20. Research Methods or Designs
The means whereby data is collected.

21. Research Designs
These seven designs are commonly employed by sociologists:
Surveys
Participant Observation
Experiments
Case studies
Secondary analysis
Documents or existing sources
Unobtrusive measures

22. Research Designs: Surveys
An instrument that asks individuals a series of questions. They take two forms: questionaires and interviews.
Questionnaires: A series of questions that respondents answer on their own.
Interviews: A series of questions that the surveyor asks the respondent and then records.
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23. Research Designs: Surveys
Type of Questions:
Open-ended questions: Enable respondents to answer in their own words.
Close-ended questions: Questions followed by a list of possible answers for respondents to choose from.
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24. Types of questions: Closed- and Open-ended
Taken from page 25 of Henslin’s Essentials of Sociology.

25. Research Designs: Experiments
A set of investigative procedures useful for determining cause and effect.
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26. Taken from page 29 of Henslin’s Essentials of Sociology.

27. Research Designs: Participant Observation
Also called fieldwork, it occurs when researchers participate in a research setting while observing what is actually occurring in that setting.
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28. Research Designs: Case Studies
Focus on a single event, situation, or person. Seek to understand dynamics of relationships and power.
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29. Research Designs: Secondary Analysis
Researchers analyze data collected by others.
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30. Research Designs: Documents or Existing Sources
Includes written sources such as books, newspapers, bank records, and government archives or statistical abstracts. Use is being made of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data.
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31. Research Designs: Unobtrusive Measures
Subjects are unaware they are being observed. Common sources include graffiti, digital media, and human accretion or middens (refuse or garbage).
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32. Research Designs: Quantitative and Qualitative
The seven research designs fall into two basic categories:
Quantitative research: Collect and report data primarily in numeric form.
Qualitative research: Rely on what is seen out in field and naturalistic settings; focus is on small groups and communities.
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33. Sociological Research Ethics
Research ethics require honesty, truth, and openness. Sociologists forbidden to falsify results, or to plagiarize.
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34. Values in Sociological Research
Sociologists oftentimes face a dual dilemma. No one can escape values entirely. Objectivity is a goal.
First dilemma– Making sure research is not distorted by sociologist’s values.
Second dilemma– Should research seek only to analyze human behavior, or have the goal of reforming harmful social arrangements.
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