1. Check your grades on the spreadsheets and report any discrepancies.
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
AP Exam Payment Letter
Check your grades on the spreadsheets and report any discrepancies.
Are there any other exam questions?
This week we will begin our study of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Comparative anatomy among other animals will be covered as well.

2. Convergent evolution in fast swimmers
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
Type of Evolution?
Convergent evolution in fast swimmers
Homology or analogy?
Analogy – traits that each lineage evolved independently
(a) Tuna
(b) Shark
(c) Penguin
(d) Dolphin
(e) Seal

3. How has exchange with the environment evolved?
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
How has exchange with the environment evolved?
Simple diffusion from direct contact w/ environment
To internal exchange thru moist medium

4. Figure 40.3 Contact with the environment
Diffusion
(a) Single cell
Mouth
Gastrovascular
cavity
(b) Two cell layers

5. Figure 40.4 Internal exchange surfaces of complex animals
External environment
Food
CO2 O2
Mouth
Animal
body
Respiratory
system
Circulatory
Nutrients
Excretory
Digestive
Heart
Blood
Cells
Interstitial
fluid
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste
products (urine)
The lining of the small intestine, a diges-
tive organ, is elaborated with fingerlike
projections that expand the surface area
for nutrient absorption (cross-section, SEM).
A microscopic view of the lung reveals
that it is much more spongelike than
balloonlike. This construction provides
an expansive wet surface for gas
exchange with the environment (SEM).
Inside a kidney is a mass of microscopic
tubules that exhange chemicals with
blood flowing through a web of tiny
vessels called capillaries (SEM).
0.5 cm
10 µm
50 µm

6. Review…what is the hierarchy of biological organization?
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
Review…what is the hierarchy of biological organization?
Atoms
molecules
organelles
cells
tissues
organs
organ systems…

7. What is a tissue & what are the 4 types?
Group of cells in a matrix w/a common structure & function:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

8. Stratified squamous epithelia Simple squamous epithelia
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Columnar epithelia, which have cells with relatively large cytoplasmic volumes, are often
located where secretion or active absorption of substances is an important function.
A stratified columnar
epithelium
A simple columnar
A pseudostratified
ciliated columnar
Stratified squamous epithelia
Simple squamous epithelia
Cuboidal epithelia
Basement membrane
40 µm
Epithelial Tissue
Tightly packed sheets, cover the body, line organs & cavities w/in the body
Involved w/ secretion & absorption

9. Fibrous connective tissue
Binds & supports other tissues
3 types:
Collagenous
non-elastic – skin won’t rip
Elastic
elastin – skin reshapes
Reticular
Thin & branched
Made of collagen
Joins connective tissue to neighboring tissue
Collagenous
fiber
Elastic
Chondrocytes
Chondroitin
sulfate
Loose connective tissue
Fibrous connective tissue
100 µm
100 µm
Nuclei
30 µm
Bone
Blood
Central
canal
Osteon
700 µm
55 µm
Red blood cells
White blood cell
Plasma
Cartilage
Adipose tissue
Fat droplets
150 µm
CONNECTIVE TISSUE

10. Long cells made of contractile proteins
MUSCLE TISSUE
Skeletal muscle
100 µm
Multiple nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Intercalated
disk
50 µm
Smooth muscle
Muscle
fibers
25 µm
NERVOUS TISSUE
Neurons
Process
Cell body
Muscle tissue (ch 49)
Long cells made of contractile proteins
Actin & myosin

11. Muscle tissue (ch 49) 3 kinds: 1. Skeletal – aka striated (w/ lines)
2. Cardiac – heart – branched cells
3. Smooth
no striations
In walls of digestive tract,
bladder, arteries
MUSCLE TISSUE
Skeletal muscle
100 µm
Multiple nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Intercalated
disk
50 µm
Smooth muscle
Muscle
fibers
25 µm
NERVOUS TISSUE
Neurons
Process
Cell body

12. Sense stimuli & transmits signals neuron
MUSCLE TISSUE
Skeletal muscle
100 µm
Multiple nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Intercalated
disk
50 µm
Smooth muscle
Muscle
fibers
25 µm
NERVOUS TISSUE
Neurons
Process
Cell body
Nervous tissue (ch 48)
Sense stimuli & transmits signals
neuron

13. All of the chemical rxns within an organism Catabolism –
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
What is metabolism?
All of the chemical rxns within an organism
Catabolism –
breaks bonds – releases energy
exergonic
Anabolism –
forms bonds – requires energy – endergonic

14. Figure 40.7 Bioenergetics of an animal: an overview
Organic molecules
in food
Digestion and
absorption
Nutrient molecules
in body cells
Cellular
respiration
Biosynthesis:
growth,
storage, and
reproduction
work
Heat
Energy
lost in
feces
urine
External
environment
Animal
body
Carbon
skeletons
ATP

15. What is homeostasis? How is it achieved?
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
What is homeostasis?
Steady state, maintaining a constant condition of properties
regulating internal environment
How is it achieved?
Negative feedback
the response is in the opposite direction of the stimulus
- Positive feedback
-response & stimulus are in the
same direction

16. How is set point maintained?
Figure 40.11 A nonliving example of negative feedback: control of room temperature
Response
No heat
produced
Room
temperature
decreases
Heater
turned
off
Set point
Too
hot
Set
point
Control center:
thermostat
increases on
cold
Heat
How is set point maintained?

17. What are the 2 types of thermoregulation?
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
What are the 2 types of thermoregulation?
Ectothermic – heat & metabolism based on environment
Endothermic – heat & metabolism regulated internally

18. Figure 40.12 The relationship between body temperature and environmental temperature in an aquatic endotherm and ectotherm
River otter (endotherm)
Largemouth bass (ectotherm)
Ambient (environmental) temperature (°C)
Body temperature (°C) 40 30 20 10

19. How do organisms exchange heat with their environment? Radiation
Emission of electromagnetic waves
Evaporation
Removal of heat from a surface of a liquid as gas molecules are released
Convection
Transfer of heat by the movement of air past a surface
Conduction
Transfer of heat from objects in direct contact

20. Figure 40.13 Heat exchange between an organism and its environment
Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic
waves by all objects warmer than absolute
zero. Radiation can transfer heat between
objects that are not in direct contact, as when
a lizard absorbs heat radiating from the sun.
Evaporation is the removal of heat from the surface of a
liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas.
Evaporation of water from a lizard’s moist surfaces that
are exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the
movement of air or liquid past a surface,
as when a breeze contributes to heat loss
from a lizard’s dry skin, or blood moves
heat from the body core to the extremities.
Conduction is the direct transfer of thermal motion (heat)
between molecules of objects in direct contact with each
other, as when a lizard sits on a hot rock.

21. How can organisms exchange heat within their bodies?
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
How can organisms exchange heat within their bodies?
Countercurrent heat exchange:
Arteries carrying warm blood/fluid down extremities
Passing veins carrying cool blood/fluid
Heat transfers from artery to vein

22. Figure 40.15 Countercurrent heat exchangers
Arteries carrying warm blood down the
legs of a goose or the flippers of a dolphin
are in close contact with veins conveying
cool blood in the opposite direction, back
toward the trunk of the body. This
arrangement facilitates heat transfer
from arteries to veins (black
arrows) along the entire length
of the blood vessels.
Near the end of the leg or flipper, where
arterial blood has been cooled to far below
the animal’s core temperature, the artery
can still transfer heat to the even colder
blood of an adjacent vein. The venous blood
continues to absorb heat as it passes warmer
and warmer arterial blood traveling in the
opposite direction.
As the venous blood approaches the
center of the body, it is almost as warm
as the body core, minimizing the heat lost
as a result of supplying blood to body parts
immersed in cold water.
In the flippers of a dolphin, each artery is
surrounded by several veins in a
countercurrent arrangement, allowing
efficient heat exchange between arterial
and venous blood.
Canada
goose
Artery
Vein
35°C
Blood flow
30º
20º
10º
33°
27º
18º 9º
Pacific
bottlenose
dolphin 1 2 3

23. Internal body temperature
How do we achieve homeostasis for body temperature?
36-38oC internal temp.
Above set pt. – hypothalamus  sweat glands & skin blood vessels dilate – result?
Back to set pt.
Fig Human Thermoregulation
Thermostat in
hypothalamus
activates cooling
mechanisms.
Sweat glands secrete
sweat that evaporates,
cooling the body.
Blood vessels
in skin dilate:
capillaries fill
with warm blood;
heat radiates from
skin surface.
Body temperature
decreases;
thermostat
shuts off cooling
Increased body
temperature (such
as when exercising
or in hot
surroundings)
Homeostasis:
Internal body temperature
of approximately 36–38C
increases;
shuts off warming
Decreased body
temperature
(such as when
in cold
Blood vessels in skin
constrict, diverting blood
from skin to deeper tissues
and reducing heat loss
from skin surface.
Skeletal muscles rapidly
contract, causing shivering,
which generates heat.
activates
warming

24. Internal body temperature
How do we achieve homeostasis for body temperature?
36-38oC internal temp.
Below set pt. –
hypothalamus  constrict blood vessels in skin & contract skeletal muscles (shivering)
Result?
Fig Human Thermoregulation
Thermostat in
hypothalamus
activates cooling
mechanisms.
Sweat glands secrete
sweat that evaporates,
cooling the body.
Blood vessels
in skin dilate:
capillaries fill
with warm blood;
heat radiates from
skin surface.
Body temperature
decreases;
thermostat
shuts off cooling
Increased body
temperature (such
as when exercising
or in hot
surroundings)
Homeostasis:
Internal body temperature
of approximately 36–38C
increases;
shuts off warming
Decreased body
temperature
(such as when
in cold
Blood vessels in skin
constrict, diverting blood
from skin to deeper tissues
and reducing heat loss
from skin surface.
Skeletal muscles rapidly
contract, causing shivering,
which generates heat.
activates
warming

25. How do animals thermoregulate in temperature extremes?
Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function
How do animals thermoregulate in temperature extremes?
Torpor – physiological state in which activity is low &
metabolism is decreased
Hibernation – winter – bears, Belding’s ground squirrels
Estivation – summer – many reptiles, bees

26. Figure 40.22 Body temperature and metabolism during hibernation in Belding’s ground squirrels
Additional metabolism that would be
necessary to stay active in winter
200
Actual
metabolism
100
Metabolic rate
(kcal per day)
Arousals 35
Body
temperature 30 25 20
Temperature (°C) 15 10 5
Outside
temperature -5
Burrow
temperature
-10
-15
June
August
October
December
February
April