1. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History 2nd Edition
Robert W. Strayer
Ways of the World: A Brief Global History 2nd Edition
CHAPTER 4
Eurasian Cultural and Religion in Eurasia/North Africa
500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
Copyright © 2009 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

2. China and the Search for Order
A.  China had a state-building tradition that went back to around 2000 B.C.E.
  1.  idea of Mandate of Heaven was established by 1122 B.C.E. (foundation of the Zhou dynasty)
  2.  breakdown into the chaos of the “age of warring states” (403–221 B.C.E.)

3. A. In 2004, China celebrated the 2,555th birthday of Confucius, despite Communism. 1. Buddhism and Christianity also growing rapidly in China 2. part of enduring legacy of the classical world B. In the period around 500 B.C.E., there was a great emergence of durable cultural traditions that have shaped the world ever since. 1. China : Kong Fuzi (Confucius) and Laozi 2. India : Hinduism and Buddhism 3. Middle East: development of monotheism a. Persia : Zoroastrianism (prophet Zarathustra) b. Israel : Judaism (prophets such as Isaiah) 4. Greece : rational humanism (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, et al.) 5. all sought an alternative to polytheism, placating of gods through ritual and sacrifice a. quest for source of order and meaning in the universe b. guide humans to personal moral or spiritual transformation (especially development of compassion) c. the questions they pose still trouble and inspire humankind d. they defined their distinctive cultures C. Why did all these traditions emerge at about the same time? 1. some historians point to major social changes a. iron-age technology led to higher productivity and deadlier war b. growing cities, increasing commerce c. emergence of new states and empires d. new contacts between civilizations 2. it’s a mystery why particular societies developed particular answers

4. The Legalist Answer 1. Han Fei was a leading Legalist philosopher
  2.  principle: strict rules, clearly defined and strictly enforced, are the answer to disorder
  3.  pessimistic view of human nature; only the state can act in people’s long-term interest
  4.  promotion of farmers and soldiers, who performed the only essential functions in society
  5.  Legalism inspired the Qin dynasty reunification of China

5. The Confucian Answer
1. Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) was an educated, ambitious aristocrat a. spent much of life looking for a political position to put his ideas into practice b. Confucius’s ideas had enormous impact on China and the rest of East Asia c. his teachings were collected by students as the Analects d. elaboration and commentary on his ideas by later scholars, creating Confucianism as a body of thought 2. principle: the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder a. society consists of unequal relationships b. duty of the superior member to be sincere and benevolent c. will inspire deference and obedience from the inferior member 3. humans have capacity for improvement: education is the key a. advocated a broad liberal arts education b. application of liberal arts education to government problems c. need for ritual and ceremonies 4. after Legalism was discredited, Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state 5. the family as a model for political life, with focus on filial piety a. defined role of women as being humble, serving husbands b. woman writer Ban Zhao (45–116 C.E.): Lessons for Women 6. emphasized the great importance of history a. ideal good society was a past golden age b. “superior men” had outstanding moral character and intellect; not just aristocrats c. created expectations for government: emperors to keep taxes low, give justice, and provide for material needs 7. Confucianism was nonreligious in character a. emphasis was practical, focused on this world b. did not deny existence of gods and spirits, but the educated elite had little to do with them

6. The Daoist Answer
1.  associated with the legendary Laozi (sixth century B.C.E.), author of the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power)
  2.  Daoism was in many ways the opposite of Confucianism
    a.  education and striving for improvement was artificial and useless
    b.  urged withdrawal into the world of nature
  3.  central concept: dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena
  4.  elite Chinese often regarded Daoism as a complement to Confucianism
  5.  Daoism entered popular religion
    a.  sought to tap the power of the dao for practical purposes (magic, the quest for immortality)
    b.  provided the ideology for peasant rebellions (e.g., Yellow Turbans)

7. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
1.  elite culture was enthusiastic about the divine and about spiritual matters
  2.  Hinduism (the Indian religious tradition) had no historical founder
    a.  developed along with Indian civilization
    b.  spread into Southeast Asia, but remained associated with India and the Indians above all
    c.  was never a single tradition; “Hinduism” is a term invented by outsiders

8. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation
1.  widely recognized sacred texts provided some common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion
  2.  the Vedas (poems, hymns, prayers, rituals)
    a.  compiled by Brahmins (priests), transmitted orally
    b.  were not written down (in Sanskrit) until around 600 B.C.E.
    c.  provide a glimpse of Indian civilization in 1500–600 B.C.E.
    d.  role of Brahmins in practicing elaborate ritual sacrifices gave them power and wealth
  3.  the Upanishads (mystical, philosophical works) developed in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins
    a.  composed between 800 and 400 B.C.E.
    b.  probe inner meaning of Vedic sacrifices—introspection
    c.  central idea: Brahman (the World Soul) as ultimate reality
    d.  Brahmin priests and wandering ascetics spread Hindu teachings

10. The Buddhist Challenge
1.  developed side by side with philosophical Hinduism
  2.  Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566–ca. 486 B.C.E.)
    a.  spiritual journey led to “enlightenment” (insight) at age 35
    b.  his followers saw him as the Buddha, the Enlightened One
  3.  central Buddhist teaching: life is suffering
    a.  sorrow’s cause is craving for individual fulfillment, attachment to self
    b.  “cure” it with modest and moral life, meditation
    c.  goal is achievement of enlightenment or nirvana (extinguishing of individual identity)
  4.  large elements of Hinduism are present in Buddhist teaching
    a.  life as an illusion
    b.  karma and rebirth    
c.  overcoming demands of the ego
    d.  practice of meditation
    e.  hope for release from the cycle of rebirth
  5.  much of Buddhism challenged Hinduism
    a.  rejection of Brahmins’ religious authority
    b.  lack of interest in abstract speculation
    c.  need for individuals to take responsibility for their own spiritual development
    d.  strong influence of Indian patriarchy
  6.  appealed especially to lower castes and women in India
    a.  teaching was in local language, not classical Sanskrit    
b.  linked to local traditions with establishment of monasteries and stupas (shrines with relics of the Buddha)
    c.  state support from Ashoka (268–232 B.C.E.)
  7.  the split within Buddhism
    a.  early Buddhism (Theravada, or Teaching of the Elders)
    b.  by early in the Common Era, development of Mahayana (Great Vehicle)

11. Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and Devotion
II. Cultural Traditions of Classical India
A. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation
1. Vedas (1500–600 B.C.E.), Brahmins, and rituals: These early Indian texts were initially passed down by oral tradition. They give detailed insights into the early South Asian world, where social hierarchy and religious ritual were very important.
2. Upanishads (800–400 B.C.E.): As lower classes began to react increasingly negatively to the elites’ emphasis on social status and ritual obligation, a body of texts by various anonymous authors arose that focused more on mystical and philosophical issues than on formal rituals.
3. Atman and Brahman: The Upanishads taught that individual human souls, atman, were part of a greater “world soul,” Brahman. The eternal unity of Brahman was the true reality and the divisions and diversities of the material world were a mere illusion.

12. Moving toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East

13. Zoroastrianism
1. Zarathustra (seventh to sixth century B.C.E.): While it is uncertain when this prophet lived, his ideas took hold later. He sought to stop violence and cattle raiding amongst the Persians by declaring a single unique god that was the source of all light and wisdom, Ahura Mazda.
2. Persian state support, Achaemenid Dynasty (558–330 B.C.E.): This dynasty gave the faith and its priesthood state support.
3. Ahura Mazda versus Angra Mainyu: Zarathustra taught that there was a constant struggle between the forces of good and evil and that at some point, a savior would come to help the forces of good defeat evil and there would be a final judgment for all men with either punishment or rewards in an afterlife.
4. Human free will, struggle of good versus evil, a savior, and judgment day: Key elements of Zoroastrianism influenced the Jewish community that lived in the Persian Empire. While the Zoroastrian faith remained small and was later damaged by Greek and Islamic invaders, its ideas found new life in braches of Judaism that would later become Christianity and Islam. A few Zoroastrians survived in India where they are known as Parsis (“Persians”).

14. Judaism
Judaism
1. Migrations and exiles of a small Hebrew community: In contrast to Zoroastrianism, which developed in a powerful empire, Judaism was the tribal faith of a very small community that went through several migrations, exiles, and a few short-lived kingdoms. Rather than state identity holding these together, it was a shared religious and cultural identity that survived the centuries-long journey from Mesopotamia to Egypt and onto the promised land of Canaan before suffering invasion and exile at the hands of the Assyrians (772 B.C.E.) and Babylonians (586 B.C.E.).
2. One exclusive and jealous God: The first of the laws passed down to the Hebrews was that there would be no other gods but God; this was difficult in the polytheistic agrarian world of the ancient Middle East. However, over time the pro-monotheist priests won out.
3. Loyalty to Yahweh and obedience to his laws: The Jews’ relationship with God was contractual: So long as they kept their faith and obeyed him, they would be rewarded with a growing population and prosperity. For many, the link to Yahweh was personal, he was a god that one could appeal to rather than an abstract force. This religious development laid the foundation for Christianity and Islam.

15. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece: The Search for a Rational Order

16. The Greek Way of Knowing
1. Questions, not answers: The Greek contribution lay in asking a series of analytic questions about a wide variety of issues rather than proclaiming authoritative answers.
2. Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.), Plato (429–348 B.C.E.), and Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.): Greece’s three greatest thinkers were a succession of teachers and students (Socrates taught Plato who taught Aristotle who, in turn, tutored the future Alexander the Great as a young boy). Each provided important contributions to Greek thought in regards to questioning assumptions, defining terms and systems, and cataloging evidence.
3. Rational and non-religious analysis of the world: Central to the Greek philosophical contribution was the use of observation and reason to make sense of a complicated world. Their questions, analysis, and answers did not rely on religion, leaps of faith, or great mysteries. Rather the world was knowable.

17. The Greek Legacy
1. Alexander the Great, Rome, and the Academy in Athens: Greek thought was spread by Alexander during his dramatic imperial expansion, embraced by many Romans as that empire united the Mediterranean world, and preserved in the Academy in Athens, funded by Plato.
2. The loss and recovery of Greece in Europe: With the collapse of Rome and early Medieval Christianity’s hostility toward things pagan, Europe turned its back on Greek learning, only to rediscover and embrace it after the twelfth century. This rediscovery would contribute to the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.
3. Greek learning in the Islamic world: So if early Christian Europe rejected Greek learning as pagan, where did it survive? In the cities, libraries, and centers of learning in the Islamic world. Here, at the geographical crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, Muslim scholars studied, critiqued, and built upon Greek, Indian, Persian, and other international scholarship. Only when Medieval Europe engaged with the Muslim world during the Crusades was this wisdom brought back into Europe proper.

18. Comparing Jesus and the Buddha

19. The Lives of the Founders
V. The Birth of Christianity… with Buddhist Comparisons
A. The Lives of the Founders
1. Encounter with a higher level of reality: Jesus and the Buddha came from very different social backgrounds but both had a very similar and profound encounter with a higher level of reality and taught a path to personal salvation.
2. Messages of love: Both taught a message that put love for one’s fellow man (even one’s enemies) at the center.
3. Jesus’ miracles and dangerous social critique: While the Buddha did not create a social conflict and did not discuss the issue of gods and the supernatural, Jesus was said to have performed numerous miracles and gave sermons that challenged the social injustices and inequalities of the Roman Empire.

20. Establishing New Religions
1. New religions after their deaths: While both the Buddha and Jesus wanted to reform Hindu and Jewish traditions, the were not trying to create new religions per se. However, after their death, their followers did exactly this and turned these two teachers into godlike figures.
2. Paul (10–65 C.E.): St. Paul was central to the spread of the Christian faith as he sent out envoys, established churches, and oversaw the rules of this new community of believers.
3. Lower social classes and women: While Paul and others were openly hostile to women in the church, the new faith provided new opportunities for many women in the Roman Empire. Jesus’ social message attracted many converts from the lower social orders.
4. Non-European Christianity: While in the modern era Christianity became synonymous with Europe, in its first few centuries, the faith was strongest in Southwest Asia and North Africa with churches, monasteries, and other institutions spread through the Roman infrastructure of cities and roads and beyond into neighboring lands.
5. Christianity as a Roman religion: While the Roman state was initially suspicious of and hostile to the faith’s monotheism (seen as a form of atheism in its denial of Roman gods), once Emperor Constantine converted in the early fourth century, the faith soon became a state religion used to forge unity in a diverse empire.

21. Creating Institutions
C. Institutions, Controversies, and Divisions
1. The exclusion of women from leadership: While in its first few generations Christianity provided many opportunities for women to assume positions of leadership, by the fifth century they were being systematically excluded.
2. Debates over doctrine and texts: The faith was beset by numerous debates about the teachings and nature of Jesus, as well as which texts to include as part of the faith and its practice.
3. Council orthodoxy and expulsion: A series of church councils sought to establish an orthodoxy in regards to teachings, texts, and ritual. Those who did not adhere to what the councils proclaimed would be expelled from the Christian community.
4. Roman and Greek cultural traditions: The Roman empire was characterized by a distinct linguistic and cultural divide between the Latin west and Greek east. This divide influenced the interpretation and practice of the Christian faith, creating a profound distinction that survives until today.
5. Diversity in the Buddhist world: Buddhism also experienced a diversity of traditions and a series of councils that failed to impose unity upon the faith and its practitioners.

22. Chapter 4 Eurasian Cultural Traditions, 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.
Map 5.1 The Spread of Early Christianity and Buddhism (p. 149)
Spot Map 5.1 Ancient Israel (p. 140)
China’s Cultural Traditions (p. 124)
Filial Piety (p. 129)
Chinese Landscape Paintings (p. 131)
Hindu Ascetics (p. 134)
The Mahabodhi Temple (p. 135)
Zoroastrian Fire Altar (p. 139)
The Death of Socrates (p. 142)
Women in the Early Church (p. 147)

28. a. Confucianism b. Judaism c. Buddhism d. Hinduism
Comparison: Which of the following traditions focused more on the affairs of this world and credited human rationality with the power to understand that reality?
a. Confucianism
b. Judaism
c. Buddhism
d. Hinduism

29. Connection: The cultural traditions that emerged in the several centuries surrounding 500 b.c.e. in China, India, the Middle East, and Greece
a. are all best thought of as philosophical traditions and mark a decline in the importance of religion in world history.
b. all had a profound impact on elites, while non-elites continued to follow older traditions.
c. all had a profound impact on the region in which they formed but have also spread widely.
d. all became important influences on their regions but have since been replaced by completely new traditions.

30. Change: Which of the following has NOT been put forward as a reason why classical cultural traditions all emerged at roughly the same time?
a. Increased trade contact between societies
b. New more stable social orders and with them less social change around 500 b.c.e.
c. Growing cities and merchant classes where new ideas sometimes found receptive audiences
d. Iron Age technology making possible more productive economies and more deadly warfare

31. a. Zoroastrianism b. Greek Rationalism c. Buddhism d. Confucianism
Discussion Starter: Which of the following classical traditions did you find most appealing?
a. Zoroastrianism
b. Greek Rationalism
c. Buddhism
d. Confucianism

32. Discussion Starter: When you consider the religious traditions of the classical era do you think
a. that the similarities between the traditions are more striking than their differences?
b. that the similarities between the traditions are in fact superficial?
c. that all the traditions at one level are alike?
d. that some traditions share important similarities, but no distinctive feature is shared by all traditions?

33. Discussion Starter: Do you believe that the textbook has done a good job outlining the classical religious/cultural traditions in a way that is fair to all of them?
a. Yes
b. No

34. Answer is A Answer is C Answer is B
Answer Key for Chapter 5
Answer is A
Answer is C
Answer is B