1. Chapter 5 Individual Perception and Decision- Making
Essentials of
Organizational Behavior, 11/e
Global Edition
Stephen P. Robbins & Timothy A. Judge
Chapter 5
Individual Perception and Decision- Making

2. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Define perception, and explain the factors that influence it.
Identify the shortcuts individuals use in making judgments about others.
Explain the link between perception and decision making.
List and explain the common decision biases or errors.
Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.
Define creativity, and discuss the three-component model of creativity.

3. Perception
A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.
Perception is the way people organize the massive amounts of information they receive into patterns that give it meaning. People will use their perceptions of reality, not reality itself, to decide how to behave.

4. Factors Influencing Perception
Situation
Perceiver
Target
There are many factors that influence people’s perceptions. The factors are either in the perceiver such as attitudes and experience; in the situation such as social setting and time; or in the target such as sounds, size or background.

5. Person Perception: Attribution Theory
Suggests that perceivers try to “attribute” the observed behavior to a type of cause:
Internal – behavior is believed to be under the personal control of the individual
External – the person is forced into the behavior by outside events/causes
The attribution theory helps us to understand our perceptions about others. Research has shown that our perceptions about others are based upon the assumptions we make about them. The attribution theory says that when we observe behavior we try to determine if it is internally or externally driven. If it is internally driven it is under the person’s control whereas external causes are not under the individual’s control.

6. Determinants of Attribution
Distinctiveness – whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations (the uniqueness of the act) Consensus – does everyone who faces a similar situation respond in the same way as the individual did Consistency – does the person respond the same way over time
We can use three factors to help us decide if behavior is internally or externally controlled: distinctiveness, consensus, consistency. Distinctiveness shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus looks at the response and compares it to others in the same situation to see if it is consistent with the behaviors of others. Consistency looks to see if the response is the same over time.

7. Determination of Attribution
This chart looks at the elements of the attribution theory and helps us to make the connection between external or internal driven factors.

8. Attribution Errors Fundamental Attribution Error Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate that of internal factors.
Self-Serving Bias
Occurs when individuals overestimate their own (internal) influence on successes and overestimate the external influences on their failures.
There are errors and biases in the attributions we make. First we often tend to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors. This is called the fundamental attribution error. The next common error is the self-serving bias. This bias exists when individuals attribute their own successes to internal factors and blame external factors when they don’t have success.

9. Shortcuts Used in Judging Others
Selective Perception – a perceptual filtering process based on interests, background, and attitude. May allow observers to draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation.
Halo / Horn Effect – drawing a general impression based on a single characteristic.
Halo – Positive / Horn – Negative
Contrast Effects – our reaction is influenced by others we have recently encountered (the context of the observation).
Stereotyping – judging someone on the basis of the perception of the group to which they belong.
There are some frequently used shortcuts in judging others.
People will utilize past experience, their attitudes and their interests to interpret information on their own biases, often misperceiving the situation, this is called the selective perception.
Judgment can also utilize the halo effect where they will draw generally favorable impressions about an individual with a single characteristic is positive. The opposite is true when they draw unfavorable impressions about an individual based on a single negative characteristic, this is called the horn effect.
Contrast effects occur when we are making judgments about an individual and comparing them to other individuals we have recently encountered.
Stereotyping is when we judge someone on the basis of perception of the group to which he or she belongs.

10. The Link Between Perception and Decision Making
Individuals in organizations make decisions, choices from among two or more alternatives.
Top managers determine their organization’s goals, what products or services to offer, how best to finance operations, or where to locate a new manufacturing plant.
Middle- and lower-level managers set production schedules, select new employees, and decide how to allocate pay raises.
Non-managerial employees decide how much effort to put forth at work and whether to comply with a request by the boss.
In recent years, organizations have been empowering their non-managerial employees with decision-making authority historically reserved for managers alone.

11. The Link Between Perception and Decision Making
Individual decision-making is an important part of organizational behavior.
Decision making occurs as a reaction to a perceived problem. That is, a discrepancy exists between the current state of affairs and some desired state, requiring us to consider alternative courses of action.
Perception influences:
Awareness that a problem exists
The interpretation and evaluation of information
Bias of analysis and conclusions
In organizational behavior we are concerned with how decisions are made and perceptions play a significant role in that process. Often decision-making occurs as a reaction to a problem or a perceived discrepancy between the way things are and they way we would like them to be. A decision is then made based on various alternatives that have been developed from the data collected. Perception influences this entire process from problem recognition to data selection to alternative chosen.

12. Rational Decision-Making Model
Define the problem.
Identify the decision criteria.
Allocate weights to the criteria.
Develop the alternatives.
Evaluate the alternatives.
Select the best alternative.
Decision-making is done by individuals but occurs in organizations. There are some models that can help us in thinking through decision-making in organizations. The first is the Rational decision-making model.
The steps are outlined in this slide. Although this is a good model it is more of a goal than a practical method.
Seldom actually used: more of a goal than a practical method

13. Rational Decision-Making Model
5-13
1.Define the Problem: A problem is a gap between a desired state and an existing state
To make decision to solve problems, managers must:
Be aware of the gap
Be motivated to reduce the gap
Have the knowledge, skills, abilities, and resources to fix the problem
2. Identify Decision Criteria: Decision criteria are standards used to guide judgments and decisions
Generally, the more criteria a solution meets, the better that solution will be
3. Weight the Criteria: Which criteria are more or less important?
Absolute comparisons
Each criterion is compared to a standard or ranked on its own merits
Relative Comparisons
Each criterion is compared directly to every other criterion
4. Generate alternatives courses of actions Successful problem solving requires thorough examination of challenges. Thus a manager should think through and investigate several alternative solutions to a single problem
5. Evaluating the alternatives: S- Strengths W-Weakness O- Opportunities T- Threats
6. Make a decision-Ranking:
Brands Values Nokia Lumia Samsung S5 IPhone6 LG-G3 Sony Xperia
Finally selecting the best alternative having highest rank 13

14. Assumptions of the Model
Complete knowledge of the situation
All relevant options are known in an unbiased manner
The decision-maker seeks the highest utility
Problem clarity
Known options
Clear preferences
Constant preferences
No time or cost constraints
Maximum payoff
This model assumes a perfect world in order to make decisions. It assumes that there is complete information, that every option has been identified and that there is a maximum payoff.
There are six assumptions of the rational decision-making model:
-The problem is clear and unambiguous. The decision maker is assumed to have complete information regarding the decision situation.
-It is assumed the decision maker can identify all the relevant criteria and can list all the viable alternatives. Furthermore, the decision maker is aware of all the possible consequences of each alternative.
-Rationality assumes that the criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted to reflect their importance.
-It is assumed that the specific decision criteria are constant and that the weights assigned to them are stable over time.
-The rational decision maker can obtain full information about criteria and alternatives because it is assumed that there are no time or cost constraints.
-The rational decision maker will choose the alternative that yields the highest perceived value.

15. Bounded Rationality
The limited information-processing capability of human beings makes it impossible to assimilate and understand all the information necessary to optimize So most people respond to a complex problem by reducing it to a level at which they can readily understand it. Also many problems likely don’t have an optimal solution because they are too complicated to be broken down into the parameters of the rational decision- making model. So people seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient, rather than optimal (they “satisfice”) Bounded rationality is constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity
The second, bounded reality, represents more of the real world where it seeks solutions that are the best given the information that is available. Basically bounded rationality constructs simplified models that identify the essential features from problems without getting into all their complexity.

16. Decision Making in Bounded Rationality
Simpler than rational decision making, composed of three steps:
Limited search for criteria and alternatives – familiar criteria and easily found alternatives
Limited review of alternatives – focus alternatives, similar to those already in effect
Satisficing – selecting the first alternative that is “good enough”
This slide details the three key steps in bounded rationality decision making which makes it a much more simple process than the rational decision making model.

17. Intuitive Decision Making
An non-conscious process created out of distilled experience
Increases with experience
Can be a powerful complement to rational analysis in decision making
Perhaps the least rational way of making decisions is to rely on intuition.
The third model is based on intuition. This is the non-conscious process that occurs as result of experiences that result in quick decisions.

18. Common Biases and Errors
Overconfidence Bias: As managers and employees become more knowledgeable about an issue, the less likely they are to display overconfidence. For example,
in some quizzes, people rate their answers as "99% certain" but are wrong 40% of the time;
82% of the drivers surveyed feel they are in the top 30% of safe drivers
Anchoring Bias: A tendency to fixate on initial information and fail to adequately adjust for subsequent information. Anchoring describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or piece of information when making decisions. For example,
As a person looks to buy a used car, he or she may focus excessively on the odometer reading and model year of the car, and use those criteria as a basis for evaluating the value of the car, rather than considering how well the engine or the transmission is maintained;
Job seekers often fall into this trap by focusing on a desired salary while ignoring other aspects of the job offer such as additional benefits, fit with the job, and working environment.
There are many biases and errors that occur in the decision-making process.
The overconfidence bias is when you believe too much in your own ability to make good decisions.
The anchoring bias is when you make your decisions based on the information you received first and not on the new information received.

19. Common Biases and Errors
Confirmation Bias (also called myside bias or verification bias) : Seeking out information that reaffirms our past choices and discounting information that contradicts past judgments. It is a tendency of people to favor information that confirms their beliefs.
Availability Bias: The tendency to base judgments on information that is readily available. For instance, many people have a fear of flying. Although traveling in commercial aircraft is statistically safer than driving a vehicle, aircraft accidents get much more attention. The media coverage of an air disaster causes individuals the risk of flying and under state the risk of driving.
Escalation of Commitment: Staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it is wrong. For example, bidding war / dollar auction; price wars.
The next error often made is with the confirmation bias while during the decision-making process you only use facts that support your decision.
Some additional decision-making errors include the availability bias emphasizes information that is more readily at hand, information that is recent and vivid. The escalation of commitment error occurs when there is an increasing commitment to a decision in spite of evidence that it is the wrong decision.
Risk aversion is when the decision maker has a tendency to prefer a sure thing over a risky outcome. The hindsight bias occurs after an outcome is already known and then believing it could have been accurately predicted beforehand.

20. Common Biases and Errors
5-20
Risk Aversion: Preferring a sure thing over a risky outcome. The general tendency to be afraid of taking risks even when they also carry substantial potential gain
Hindsight Bias: I Knew Things Would Turn Out That Way
The tendency to believe falsely that we could have accurately predicted the outcome of an event after that outcome is already known.
The hindsight bias creates the illusion that the prediction of an uncertain event is easier than it really is when the event is viewed in retrospect, after its outcome is known. Once we learn the upshot of an uncertain situation, such as which team won a football game or in which direction prices moved, subsequent to a TA pattern, we tend to forget how uncertain we really were prior to knowing the outcome.  
Some additional decision-making errors include the availability bias emphasizes information that is more readily at hand, information that is recent and vivid. The escalation of commitment error occurs when there is an increasing commitment to a decision in spite of evidence that it is the wrong decision.
Risk aversion is when the decision maker has a tendency to prefer a sure thing over a risky outcome. The hindsight bias occurs after an outcome is already known and then believing it could have been accurately predicted beforehand. 20

21. Organizational Constraints on Decision Making
Performance evaluations
Reward systems
Formal regulations
Self-imposed time constraints
Historical precedents
There are many organizational constraints to good decision-making that create deviations from the rational model defined earlier. Managers shape their decisions on performance evaluations, reward systems and formal regulations. They also base decisions on system-imposed time constraints and historical precedents. All these factors may influence the decisions that are made.

22. Ethical Frameworks for Decision Making
Utilitarian
provide the greatest good for the greatest number
Rights
make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges
Justice
impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially so that there is equal distribution of benefits and costs
Ethics should play a role in decision-making. There are three ethical criteria that influence decisions. The first is utilitarianism where the decisions are based on the outcome of the solution. The outcome is analyzed based on seeking the greatest good for the greatest number of people and is the dominant method for businesspeople. The second criterion is rights where decisions are based on fundamental liberties and privileges in an attempt to protect the basic rights of individuals. The final criterion is justice where the decision imposes rules in a fair and impartial manner and equitably distributes benefits and costs.

23. Creativity in Decision Making
The ability to produce novel and useful ideas
Helps people to:
Better understand the problem
See problems others can’t see
Identify all viable alternatives
Identify alternatives that aren’t readily apparent
Better decisions are those that incorporate novel and useful ideas or better known as creativity. An organization will tend to make better decisions when creative people are involved in the process. So it is important to identify people who have that creative potential. Some of the methods and theories identified in earlier chapters can help in this process. For example, those who score high in openness to experience tend to be more creative.

24. Three-Component Model of Creativity
Expertise
Intrinsic Task Motivation
Creative-Thinking Skills
The three component model of creativity proposes that individual creativity results from a mixture of three components, expertise, creative-thinking skills and intrinsic task motivation. Expertise is the foundation and is based on the knowledge and experience of the individual. Creative-thinking skills are the personality characteristics associated with creativity such as the ability to use analogies and the talent to see things differently. Intrinsic task motivation is the desire to do the job because of the characteristics associated with the job.

25. Global Implications Attributions: Decision Making: Ethics:
Cross-cultural differences exist – especially in collectivist traditions
Decision Making:
Cultural background of the decision maker can have significant influence on decisions made
Ethics:
No global ethical standards exist
Need organizational-level guidance
There are many global implications to the things discussed in this chapter. There are cultural differences in the way people interpret behavior in others. For example, aggression in the United States may be viewed as hard work and determination, in Asian cultures it may be viewed as rude and pushy.
There has not been any research on the topic of cross-cultural decision-making. Based on our understanding of cultural differences we would anticipate that this would translate to decision-making as well.
Global ethics standards have not presented themselves. Some cultures do tend to see things in gray and others in black and white, but this has not been studied systematically. Companies that interact on a global basis need to set up global standards for managers.

26. Implications for Managers
Perception:
To increase productivity, influence workers’ perceptions of their jobs
To improve decision making:
Analyze the situation
Adjust your decision approach
Be aware of biases and minimize their impact
Combine rational analysis with intuition
Try to enhance your creativity
Perceptions play a critical role in how people view the situation and how they act. Managers must work on managing perceptions and incorporate them into their understanding of the workplace. Individual decision-making is also an important aspect in the workplace. In decision making most people used bounded rationality or satisfice. Managers should incorporate traditional methods with intuition and creativity to make better decisions.

27. Keep in Mind…
People have inherent biases in perception and decision making
Understanding those biases allows for better prediction of behavior
Biases can be helpful
Managers must determine when the bias may be counterproductive
Creativity aids in decision making
Helps to appraise, understand, and identify problems
Keep in mind that individuals have inherent biases in their perceptions and corresponding decision making. These biases can be helpful if used effectively.
Creativity aids in arriving at better decisions as it allows for new perspectives and ideas.

28. Summary
Defined perception and explained the factors that influence it.
Identified the shortcuts individuals use in making judgments about others.
Explained the link between perception and decision-making.
Listed and explained the common decision biases or errors.
Contrasted the three ethical decision criteria.
Defined creativity and discussed the three-component model of creativity.

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