1. 19th century Europe
All the changes below were subject to spatial, chronological variation: i.e. the further east in Europe you travel the slower the pace and extent of change.

2. Economic change Industrialiation:
Macro level of restructured econ, from primary to secondary sectors (see table p55)
Micro level of reshaped working environments.
Urbanisation
End of feudal order:
- Free wage labour emerges as normal econ relation (see table p58)

3. Change to social hierarchy: emergence of new social classes
Dominant Elites:
Monarchy
Landed aristocracy
Established churches
Middle classes:
Industrial
Commercial
Professional
Working class:
Maunufacturing artisan
agricultural

4. Changing ideologies
Ideology = set of ideas which - describes how things are
- states how they should be
- associated with specific groups
Nationalism
Liberalism
Socialism
All of these opposed to the conservatism of dominant elites

5. New political formations
Nation states
Constitutional govt: usually a written codification of limits to govt power.
Representative govt:
Elected assemblies and parliaments
Representative not same as democratic
Conflict over extent of franchises

6. TMA questions: both are examples of ways of thinking/ideologies
Class consciousness: distinguish between
Consciousness of class, i.e. a sense of common identity (class in itself – Marx’s terms)
Class consciousness, i.e. a motivator for collective action of different types from forming Trade Unions to revolution (class for itself, though here Marx was really referring to revolutionary consciousness).
Citizenship: focus is relation between people and state; probably requires thinking about relation with the ‘nation’, concrete and imagined.

7. How do new ideas emerge? What produces change?
Change isn’t made by ideas or structures; it’s made by people.
People are certainly motivated to action by ideas.
Ideas are created by people in response to the circumstances (‘structures’) in which they live.
In other words, people (and their ideas) are shaped by the structures they’re born into. Inherited sets of ideas form part of those structures.

8. What makes history?
“Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directly encountered, given and transmitted from the past.”
(Karl Marx, 18th Brumaire of Louis Napoleon)