1. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION AND EARLY ARYAN SOCIETY

2. WHERE IS IT?

3. THE GEOGRAPHIC SETTING
Indian Subcontinent
To North: Impassable Himalayas
To East: Passable low hills
To Northwest: Passable Hindu Kush, Khyber Pass
To West: Arabian Sea
Northern Plain of Indus, Ganges Rivers
Southern Deccan
High plateau, extremely dry
Bordered on East and West by mountains
Separated from north by river, low mountains
The Monsoon Winds
Off the land October to April: Dry Season
Off the Indian Ocean May to September: Wet Season

4. THE INDUS RIVER CIVILIZATION

5. HARAPPAN SOCIETY The Indus River Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
Runs through north India, sources at Hindu Kush, Himalayas
Rich deposits, but less predictable than the Nile
Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley
Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E.
Complex society of Dravidians, 3000/2500 B.C.E.
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
Possibly served as twin capitals
Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary
Broad streets, market places, temples, public buildings
Standardized weights, measures, architecture, bricks
Specialized labor and trade
Domestic trade, items inc. pottery, tools, metals
Trading with Mesopotamians about 2300 to 1750 B.C.E.

6. HARAPPAN SOCIETY/CULTURE
Social distinctions as seen from living styles
Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility
Many deities were feminine
In later Hinduism, Dravidian gods are blue-faced
Harappan society declined from 2000 B.C.E. onward
Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis
Natural catastrophes - floods or earthquakes
Population began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E.
Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E
Evidence of warfare, invasion

7. INDO-EUROPEANS & ARYANS
Linguistic similarities among Europe, Persia, and India
Indo-European family of languages
Indo-Iranian including Aryans (India), Medes/Persians (SW Asia)
Greek, Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Italic, Celtic
Tocarian, possibly Shang of China
Migrations as the key to explain linguistic similarities
Indo-European origins
North of Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Aral Sea; Ukraine, Southern Russia
Common origins established through key vocabulary, traditions, myths
Indo-European migrations
To Tarim Basin, fourth millennium B.C.E.
Shang of China appear to have been Indo-Europeans
To Anatolia (the Hittites), 3000 B.C.E.
By 2nd millennium, established communities in Europe
Around 1500 BCE, domesticated horse amongst Indo-Europeans
Often called the Chariot Peoples; introduced iron and horse technologies

8. ARYANS IN INDIA The early Aryans The Vedic Age: 1500 to 500 B.C.E.
Depended heavily on a pastoral economy
No writing system, but orally transmitted works called the Vedas
Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit)
The Vedic Age: 1500 to 500 B.C.E.
A boisterous period, conflict with indigenous peoples
Called indigenous people dasas - "enemies" or "subject people"
Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero
Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves
Aryan migrations in India
First settled in the Punjab, the upper Indus River valley
Spread east and south from their base
After 1000 B.C.E. settled between Himalayan foothills and Ganges
Used iron tools and developed agriculture
By 500 B.C.E. migrated as far south as the northern Deccan
Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms

9. THE CASTE SYSTEM Caste and varna
Hereditary, unchangeable social classes
Sanskrit word varna, "color," referring to social classes
Social distinctions based on racial skin colors
Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age
Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E.
brahmins (priests)
kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats: rulers)
vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants)
shudras (landless peasants and serfs)
Later, the category of the pariah (untouchables) was added
Subcaste or jati
Represents more elaborate social classification, developed after 6th c. B.C.E.
Jati, or subcastes, were determined by occupations
The elaborate rules of jati life
Caste and social mobility
Caste system was capable of accommodating social change
Social mobility was very difficult but still possible
Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes

10. RISE OF PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY
Patriarchal, Patrilineal society
Original Aryan Society: women had rights, some were chiefs
Changes occurred with change to sedentary civilization
Men served as priests, warriors, and tribal chiefs
Family lines based on male descendants (the patriline)
Only males could inherit property
Men learned the Vedas and received formal education
Source: The Lawbook of Manu
Prepared by an anonymous sage, 1st century B.C.E.
Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships
Advised men to treat women with honor and respect
Subjected women to the control and guidance of men
Women's duties: bear children, maintain the household
Sati as a social custom

11. ARYAN RELIGION The Aryan gods The war god, Indra
The gods of the sun, sky, moon, fire, health, etc.
The god Varuna - an ethical concern
Ritual sacrifices
Importance of ritual sacrifices
Horse sacrifice originally
Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices
Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power
Spirituality
Many Aryans dissatisfied with ritual sacrifices in late Vedic age
A shift to spiritual contemplation
Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits
Dravidian notions were coopted
Transmigration of soul
Reincarnation (nirvana)

12. THE RISE OF HINDUISM The Upanishads Brahman: the universal soul
Works of religious teachings, 800 to 400 B.C.E.
The religious forums: dialogues between disciples and sages
Brahman: the universal soul
Brahman was the only genuine reality
Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with Brahman
Atman: The individual self-soul that is part of Brahman
Teachings of the Upanishads
Samsara: An individual soul was born many times
Dharma: Caste duties
Karma: specific incarnations that a soul experienced
Moksha: permanent liberation from physical incarnation
Religion and Vedic Society
Samsara and karma reinforced social hierarchy
Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual contemplations
Taught to observe high ethical standards
Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet