1. Neo-colonialism: Definition of Neo-Colonialism
Neocolonialism, neo-colonialism or neo-imperialism is the geopolitical practice of using capitalism, business globalization, and cultural imperialism to influence a country, in lieu of either direct military control (imperialism) or indirect political control (hegemony).
In post-colonial studies, the term neo-colonialism describes the influence of countries from the developed world in the respective internal affairs of the countries of the developing world; that, despite the decolonisation that occurred in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–45), the (former) colonial powers continue to apply existing and past international economic arrangements with their former colony countries, and so maintain colonial control.
Many problems existed in Pacific Islands and other areas of the world such as:
Economy
Political stability
Discrimination against women
Health
Education
The gap between the rich and the poor
Unemployment
Other problems

2. Problems of Pacific Islands in Neo-Colonized period
Markets full of overpriced, low quality goods from Australia, New Zealand and China.
Shops selling discarded clothing from Australia
Aging infrastructure falling apart and newer infrastructure poorly designed and built
Terrible roadways and short-sighted repairs
Many old and un-roadworthy cars and buses
Poor quality houses
Lack of things that are made locally
Banks owned by foreign banking companies. Profit does not stay in the Islands.
Chinese construction companies and industry
Tourist hotels and casinos owned by Australian, New Zealand and North American (including indigenous Native American) companies
British, French and American education systems
Non-government organisations (NGOs) promoting European norms, mores, programmes and governmental systems and interfering with Island cultural, economic, political and other institutions
Political and economic pressure from Australia, New Zealand and Great Britain

3. These are Not New Phenomena
Historical continuity:
Pacific islands became colonial possessions
Ancient political systems were appropriated to accommodate colonialism
Modes of economic production transformed
Many Social values changed through the converting efforts of missionaries and local responses
World wars stimulated Islanders to seek and gain independence, also rise of nationalism
How independent are Pacific Islanders? Pacific Island leaders used nationalism to shore up popular support for economic development and lift newly independent nations from the colonial yoke
They believed that a strong sense of nationhood would help create a strong economy so people could reap benefits in everyday life

4. Historical Continuity
But some leaders were unwilling to listen to advice from outsiders or other political parties
One-party governments
Military dictatorships
Civil war
These features became common across many developing nations in Asia, Africa and the Pacific.
But for ordinary people on such islands, life was difficultPacific nations once tried to benefit from Cold War politics, foreign trade and remittances
The Cold War ended in 1991, but trade and remittances continue
Why are so many people in the Pacific islands still poor?

5. Social and Economic Problems continues after independence
‘Hell in paradise’ is an expression imposed by external observers regarding the Pacific Islands. Because Social and economic woes continues after independence.
But life has always been difficult for Pacific Islanders
Islanders sell the romantic image of island paradise to attract overseas tourists.
Many islanders struggle to acquire basic household provisions and food, and save money for their children’s education, because government aid is not adequately provided

6. Historical Continuity
In post-colonial Island nations, politicians, policy-makers and concerned citizens debate conflicts between traditional cultural values and those imposed by the West. Contexts include:
Political instability
Economic development
Regionalism
Protection of Indigenous Islanders’ Lands, Cultures and Lives

7. Political Elements Queens, kings, councils of chiefs, and/or clans
Colonial or post-colonial administrations
Post-colonial constitutions and politics:
Independent states modelled their legislatures after the British, French or American systems
British system (Westminster system)
Palau and Federated States of Micronesia: Congressional system

8. Western Political Models
Westminster model: Members of Parliament (MPs) represent either a constituency or a party
Constituency: people living in one particular area. MPs listen to and speak to the people living there, then MPs request the national government to support the requests.
If the constituents approve the MP’s performance, s/he will get re-elected
In some systems, an MP can be elected from a list of candidates that a party lists Westminster system: the party with the largest number of seats in Parliament will have the mandate, the right to govern and to form a cabinet. The cabinet includes the Prime Minister and other ministers:
Foreign affairs, finances, trade, health, education, defence, etc., as long as the ruling party is the majority
Congressional model: the president (executive) is elected separately from the representatives in the Legislature. The executive also has the right to appoint the cabinet (presidential advisors). The executive and the cabinet hold office for a fixed period of time
The executive is not chosen by the Legislature, but is elected by the people

9. Traditional Indigenous Governments
Parliamentary and congressional models are not traditional to Pacific Island nations
Traditional indigenous governments:
Clans (Mataqali)
Queens and kings:
Tonga, Samoa, Hawaii
Councils of chiefs (Great Council of Chiefs):
Fiji, Western Samoa, Cook Islands,
Marshall Islands, Vanuatu Role of Councils of chiefs (Great Council of Chiefs):
Protect the indigenous rights of First Peoples, their sacred lands (Vanua) and their interests
Advise concerning issues of culture, tradition, heritage and Pacific values

10. Political Instability: Colonial Policy
Colonial powers did not allow representative democratic participation in their parliaments or Congress during most of the colonial period. Only when they were about to grant independence did they impose these western systems of governance on Pacific Islanders.
Post-colonial governments usually combined elements of the traditional Pacific government with the imposed system. Syncretic governmental forms.

11. Syncretic governmental forms (methods of adaptation)
In western democracies, equal franchise: “one person, one vote”
Special seats in post-colonial Pacific governance:
Fiji: one specific seat for Rotuma and Fiji also kept provision of Communal votes in which each voter was to vote for the same candidate as the voter’s own racial catetory.
Kiribati: a specific measure for Banaba
Tonga: 1875 constitution, separate representation for nobles and commoners
Western Samoa: the franchise is limited to Matai (chiefs)

12. Political Instability
During election campaigns all the candidates tended to promise more or less the same things: economic development and stronger national identities
As a result, in Pacific Islands personality of the candidates mattered more than ideology. So, the contest between two opposing ideologies, communism versus capitalism, did not rank high in the political discussions.
Candidates and the public began to debate values of traditional Pacific Island society versus modern society
Two other themes that the public and politicians discussed were corruption and nepotism. Contradictions between values specific to Western vis a vis Islands cultural groups. Candidates promised big lavish parties for voters. They also gave gifts and cash for votes The public began to expect such treats.
1982, western Samoan Prime Minister was found guilty of extending traditional hospitality after winning his seat. The guilty verdict cost him his seat.
Cook Islands election law allowed overseas residents to vote even if they are back only on the day of the election. In the 1970s, Sir Albert Henry [premier of the Cook Islands] exploited this regulation, gave free flights to expatriate Cook Islanders, expecting them to vote for him in return. His knighthood and premiership were removed.

13. Political Instability: Tonga and Fiji
Nepotism: the use of official position for personal gain by giving high-paying jobs to family members. Nepotism pervasive in Tonga in the 1970s.
Tongan leaders justified nepotism as a Tongan and Polynesian tradition.
Debate between the supporters of universal values and the defenders of cultural traditions came to the flashpoint on 14 May 1987 in Fiji.
Ethnic tension was rising in Fiji since the colonial times.
British colonial administration run by Gordon and Thurston brought in Indian indentured labourers. This was because the Fijians refused to work on the land, and the British wanted to preserve the Fijian traditions. In other words, the British did not want to give the indigenous Fijians the idea of working for cash, and incentives to challenge its authorities.

14. Fiji Case Study
In 1977 elections, NFP who was erroneous label as a party of Indians won the majority of the votes, but not enough to form a single party government and failed to secure a government.
This resulted in the reappointment of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara as the Prime Minister, although his Alliance Party did not secure the majority votes. Mara’s tenure was secured in a new election a few months later.
Ian Campbell interprets that this gave the lesson for Fiji politics: Indian disunity and Fijian discontent against the Indo-Fijians were useful tools in securing the ethnic Fijians in power.

15. Political Instability
According to different historians, in 1987 elections, the NFP formed a coalition with the newly formed Fiji Labour Party. The supporters of this new party were predominantly Indo-Fijians. But many ethnic Fijians - who disagreed with previous parties’, policies supported it. The leader of the Labour Party, Timoci Bavadra became the Prime Minister, and appointed a cabinet. Indo-Fijians and Fijians made up equal numbers in the cabinet
According to varied historians, the campaign of ethnic hatred against Indian takeover of Fijian land, society, culture and tradition. Therefore, in 1987, Sitiveni Rabuka and the Fiji army threw out an elected government. And made two coups in a year.
He stuck to the principle that the constitution leading the way towards a fair Fiji – fair for him and his supporters.
How did other Pacific nations respond?

16. Politics in Fiji
They did not criticise the coup and were sympathetic for the call for cultural preservation. Some cautiously announced that it was an internal Fijian matter.
Australia and New Zealand criticised Fiji and imposed trade sanctions
Fiji criticised them for interfering with Fiji’s politics. Asian countries stepped in to trade with Fiji.
In 1999 election, the Labour Party won and its leader, Mahendra Chaudhry, became Prime Minister. George Speight then led a coup in 2000, taking the prime minister and cabinet members hostage to stop Indian Fijian citizens from holding positions of political power.

17. Political Instability: Samoa
Samoa shows another case of the conflict between the universal rights and cultural interests.
In Samoa only the Matai could vote in elections.
This limited franchise was open to abuse as candidates expected the matai to vote for them. And the Matai expected franchise to be granted for rewards
23,000 titles were registered by This was a large increase from 5000 from The Village Fono (‘meeting’) Act of 1990 strengthened the power of villages. This act opened up the debate about tradition [contradiction between corrupt and abusive practices done in the name of tradition].

18. Political Instability: Vanuatu
In Melanesia the power of chiefs was not as great. Here it appears that the defence of corruption and nepotism by customs and tradition was not as obvious as elsewhere.
In Vanuatu the Vana’aku Party ruled the nation after The party believed its job was to help create a strong nation. But the opposition boycott presented a crisis. President dismissed the parliament, but was later arrested and imprisoned. In 1990 Prime Minister Walter Lini, leader of the independence movement wanted to give more rights to chiefs, and to tighten freedom of religion.
Yet, Vanuatu showed a friendly gesture to foreign companies’ tax haven and developing real estate and casinos. A big change from the 1980s when the foreign land title was abolished.

19. Political Instability
Papua New Guinea had independence campaigners in Bougainville.
Regional politics and administrative bodies were weak and inefficient. This has the roots in the 1960s when Australia was preparing for PNG independence. A secessionist movement was discouraged.
Rich mineral resources such as gold and copper. The mines became a bitter field of tension between local and immigrant workers resulting in conflict between them as well as landowners and the police.

20. PNG Case study
Francis Ona one such unhappy mineworker formed the Bougainville Revolutionary Army, causing deaths and destruction.
In early 1990 the Papua New Guinea Defence Force was in action against the rebels called Bougainville Revolutionary Army.
The civil war, ten years of conflict. About 20,000 people were killed. Mining operations halted.

21. Political Instability: Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands independence in 1978
Governments short-lived and corruption was widespread. Productivity was low.
The question of landownership was the main problem.
Ethnic tensions was the main problem of Solomon Island politics.
Two main islands of Solomon, Guadalcanal and Malaita, saw drastic changes since WW2. During the War, many Malaita islanders moved to Guadal canal for work and farming [Guadalcanal has good land]. Ill-feelings against the Malaitans.
Isatambu Freedom Movement used second hand old weapons from WW2 and those acquired from Bougainville.
Approximately 20,000 Malaitans forced out of Guadalcanal, though many of them born there.
Low-intensity civil war, 1999 between people of Guadalcanal and Malaita developed.
Law and order, economy collapsed
Australia and NZ deployments to resolve the conflict of Solomons

22. Case study of Cook Islands
According to I.C. Campbell, the First PM of Cook Islands Albert Henry ruled for 12 years [Cook Islands remained dependent territory of New Zealand till 1965] and later he became autocratic and his family was heavily represented in senior positions.
The general elections of 1979 were declared invalid because of vote-buying by Henry’s party. Henry was disgraced and a new election was held in His successor Dr. Thomas Davis was dismissed after losing the confidence of the house in Davis also like Henry became autocratic in old age.

23. Political Instability
Ian Campbell interprets the weakness of the Melanesian states could come from weakness of party politics.
Melanesia politics is more personal popularity contests.
Candidates used parties to serve their own personal ambitions rather than uniting together along a set of policies
Not much discipline within parties

24. Neo Colonialism Impact on Island Economy: Foreign Investment
Island Economy after independence was facing shortage of funds, so different foreign economists suggested to develop tourism in order to generate more revenues.
But improvement in tourism industry required huge foreign investment, thus Pacific islanders have to use the imported foreign goods for the tourists.
The assets built up by foreign investment remained the property of the investors, so leaving the host nation [Pacific Island] vulnerable to adverse capital movements in the future.

25. Foreign Investment and its problems
Thus foreign investment in Island nations forced the government to social and economic policies which will protect those investments but these policies created regional disparities in development, social inequalities of wealth and opportunity and the erosion of traditional values or practices.
i.e. Papua New Guinea had to sacrifice its traditional values of equality and fairness after independence. This led to rise of corruption, extravagance, injustice and crime rates soar.

26. Economic Neo-colonialism :Economic Development
Australia, New Zealand, and European colonial nations attempted to set Pacific Island nations on paths towards development.
Nauru still had phosphate reserves
Fiji had sugar industry
Other island nations lacked resources and industries:
Kiribati
Cook Islands
Niue; these three islands depended on New Zealand for their budgets.

27. Economic Development
PNG rich in minerals, but lacked a developed mining industry. Mostly various island nations were competitors in the same markets.
Australia backed PNG’s finances. Why did it help?
If Pacific nations are to delay
development, they will fail to engage
in global trade and to gain revenue to
support their own people.

28. Lacking favourable balance of trade
Till 1980s, none of the independent island nations had achieved favourable balance of trade.
Papua New Guinea received for its exports only about two thirds of the value of its imports.
Western Samoa’s imports were worth four times the value of its exports. Same happened in Vanuatu and Tonga.
In no cases were the profits from tourism and remittance from citizens overseas sufficient to make up the balance. Therefore in most Pacific island nations, at least one third of budged was foreign aid. Exception Fiji only got 3 % of foreign aid so it became the least dependent of Pacific nations.

29. Dependence on Foreign Assistance increased.
Need of Assistance to Pacific Island economies increased with time and they begin to be more dependent on foreign aid as their subsistence economies became less efficient.
Wage labour, cash cropping and a growing sense of individualism have all weakened the traditional, mutual supports of village life, while urbanization has placed many outside it altogether.

30. Economic Development: Bilateral Aid
To Speed up development, Australia and NZ engaged in bilateral aid:
A government hands money to another government
The recipient was supposed to manage funds on various projects and purposes
In the 1970s the prevailing belief was that big spending on public projects on infrastructure would help developing nations.
But the flow of money was too big for the receiving nations to manage adequately. Skilled labour shortage and the economy too small.
The surplus of money gave way to Corruption. As the Development aid went to government and the development of private corporations was delayed except for plantations.
Pacific nations were to receive aids from international organisations with strict conditions.

31. Economic Development: Pacific nations in deep Debt in 1980s
In 1970s many aid programmes and funds coming in, helping development, but not enough to make Pacific nations support themselves
Sizes of aid and programmes ambitious and large. By the 1980s Pacific nations in deep debts from 1970s projects.

32. Economic Development
Also during the 1970s, Pacific nations opted for import-substitution for the goods they could not produce or manufacture within their own territories. Debts soared.
The value of imported goods in Vanuatu was 2.5 times larger than of the exports. Four times in Western Samoa, and five times in Tonga.
PNG’s exports earned only two-thirds of its imported goods
These debts were too large for foreign aid and the tourist industry to help
1970s also saw the impact of Urbanisation and population growth Subsistence farming became less effective and inefficient because of
Decreasing availability of land
Soil depletion
Life in larger towns was tough:
Job shortage; high unemployment
Finances for families relieved through remittances
Remittances from overseas such as Australia and NZ are a result of these nations accepting Pacific Islanders as immigrants.
But remittance economy does not mean the local economy would generate viable jobs for the islanders.
Another problem was the high population growth rate in early decades of independence but slowly it was reduce. Another phenomena of emigrating islanders to NZ, Australia and USA created shortage of skilled workers.

33. Economic Development: Multi-lateral aid programme developed
1980s: change in development strategies:
Multi-lateral aid programme developed:
Donor governments donated funds and goods to small-scale regionally based organisations
Donors now believed that direct assistance to organisations in need would be more effective than giving cash to governments

34. Rise of Regionalism[Regional cooperation or Mutual dependence]
WW2 gave the stimulus for regional co-operation. In 1947 the South Pacific Commission was established to offer advice, to coordinate development projects and to conduct research into various aspects of administration and development.
South Pacific Commission (SPC), Founded by:
Australia
New Zealand
United Kingdon (Great Britain)
France
Netherlands
United States of America
Regionalism
Today, SPC consists solely of independent Pacific Island nations. All of the original members are no longer members. Resource development:
Land
Fisheries and marine ecosystems
Social and cultural
Other programmes

35. South Pacific Forum (SPF)
Co-operation amongst the islands led to the inception of the South Pacific Forum in 1971.
SPF because most of the original SPC members refused to discuss nuclear testing
SPF: heads of region’s governments met annually and discussed matters of common interest. Original members: Tonga, Fiji, Nauru, Western Samoa, Cook Islands, New Zealand, Australia

36. SPEC: South Pacific Bureau of Economic Co-operation
SPF also established the South Pacific Bureau of Economic Co-operation (SPEC)
SPEC was to lead research initiatives on alternative resources as petrol-based energy is expensive.
It was to lead research initiatives on alternative resources as petrol-based energy is expensive. Its trading arm dealt with foreign trade, so that commodities and produce from the Pacific Islands would gain greater access in Australia and New Zealand.
The Pacific Forum grew as more islands attained independence.

37. Regionalism in Pacific Islands: SPF
Main challenges were to tackle islands’ weakness caused by isolation
Transport network by sea and air were established.
SPF established shipping line to reduce dependence on extra-regional enterprise, a Civil Aviation Agency, a Regional Shipping Council, the South Pacific Maritime development Programme and a Regional Fisheries Agency for the better management of the Pacific’s resources of fish.
The fishery agency would deal with the licences issued to western and Asian nations. By the 1970s ships from Japan, Korea and the USA were taking top many fish. The fishery agency was to manage the foreign vessels so that they would honour the island nations’ rights over the 200-mile limit, and also to bring the foreign ships under control by issuing licences.
Regionalism
The economies of the Pacific either remained fragile or became worse. Increasing populations and declining agriculture, combined with the distorted development required by foreign investment, prevented Pacific governments to fulfill the needs of its own people with their own resources.

38. Regional cooperation of Pacific Islanders
Regional co-operation also led to the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty in It banned the manufacture, testing and stationing of nuclear weapons in the region. It was signed by all the major nuclear powers: France, Britain, the USA, China and the USSR, and all pacific nations except Marshall Islands.
Several Pacific territories adopted anti-nuclear stances on becoming independence. i.e. Fiji.

39. Pacific Islanders Joining Extra Regional Organizations
New Pacific nations were eager to join extra-regional organizations.
Fiji, the Solomons, PNG and Western Samoa joined the United Nations.
PNG, the Solomons, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, Nauru, Kiribati and Tuvalu joined Commonwealth.
Many South Pacific states became associated with European Community through Lomé Convention.
Some became members of Asian Development Bank and many joined World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

40. Future ahead for Pacific Islanders
Pacific Islands saw the processes of colonisation and decolonisation over thousand years.
First the islands colonised each other. Later the Europeans and the Japanese colonized Islanders.
Political independence after the 1970s promised much but it also led to the process of Neo-colonialism.
The islands are independent in international diplomacy and domestic political decision-making.
Many islands became independent without addressing the legacies of colonial economic and political structures.
Weak government and financial bases made Pacific Islands an ideal breeding ground for men from overseas engaged in money laundering and drug trafficking.

41. Rise of Neo-Colonialism
Pacific governments resorted to raising revenue through sales of passports to non-nationals, and to remittance economy.
But Pacific nations have come under the force of ‘neo-colonialism’ – a new form of colonialism
Islanders will then have to strike a fine balance between the state sovereignty, regional co-operation and influential external states.
I. C. Campbell, Worlds Apart: A History of the Pacific Islands, Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, Chap. 16
S. Firth,. “Strategic and Nuclear Issues”, Tides of History: The Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century. eds. K. R. Howe, R. C. Kiste and B. V. Lal. Sydney: Allen and Unwin,
Earlier outline slides and Internet.