1. Notebook Tabs
1. Prologue/Chapter 1 2. Chapter 2 3. Chapters 3 and 4 4. Chapters 5 and 6 5. Chapters 7 6. Chapter 8 7. Chapters 9 and Chapters 11 and Chapters 12/13/ Chapters 16 and Chapter 18

2. AP Psychology: Chapter 1: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science

3. What is critical thinking?
Discussion Question
What is critical thinking?
How does it relate to psychology and this course?

4. Let’s Make A Deal Shows Us That:
Human Intuition is highly limited.
Critically thinking rarely comes easily to us!
Critical Thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
examines assumptions
discerns hidden values
evaluates evidence
An awareness to our own vulnerability

5. the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Lack of Intuition
Hindsight Bias: tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon

6. Lack Of Intuition
Overconfidence: we tend to think we know more than we do.
We can't always trust our common sense or intuition we need research

7. Research Strategies Hypothesis
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Low self esteem contributes to depression
Hypothesis
a testable prediction
often implied by a theory
Allows us to test and reject or revise the theory
People with low self esteem score higher on a depression scale

8. One last check……………..
You need to make sure your study is reliable and valid.
Reliability-if your study was replicated would you get the same results?
Validity- Does the study or experiment test what it is designed to test.

9. Scientific Method theories research and observations hypothesis
generate or refine
research and
observations
lead to
hypothesis
theories
lead to

10. How to check our bias Operational Definition
a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables
You want to be clear enough so that the test and observations can be replicated
To give the study more credibility it is usually done with different subjects in different situations
Make sure studies are valid and reliable

11. Research Strategies
1. Descriptive- making observations that describe behavior
2. Correlational- detecting relationships that help predict behavior
3. Experimental-doing studies that help explain behavior

12. Research Methods- Descriptive
Case Study
an observation technique in which one person , or a small group, is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Longitudinal-
Cross Sectional-
Drawbacks of case study: individuals can be atypical and lead to false findings.
Anecdotal Stories

13. Research Methods- Descriptive and Correlation
Survey
technique for ascertaining the self- reported attitudes or behaviors of people
usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

14. Components of Survey
Population: all the individuals you are interested in knowing something about.
Sample: the individuals you actually question.
Sampling should always be taken randomly from the population so that it is representative, meaning each individual in the population had an equal chance of being selected.

15. Drawbacks of Surveys
1.) Improper Sampling 2.) Question Wording Can Effect the results of a survey. Ex: Should cigarette ads or pornography be allowed on television? Ex. Mississippi River- Is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than 500 miles? How long is the Mississippi River? Is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than 3000 miles? How long is the Mississippi River?

16. Importance of Proper Sampling
False Consensus Effect: tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
Overgeneralizing extreme examples can lead you to false conclusions!

17. Types of Research-Descriptive
Naturalistic Observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Drawbacks: hard to identify any type of causation since there is no controls.

18. Correlation Research
Correlation Research: research that looks at a relationship between two things. How well does one factor predict the other?
Ex: Consumption of Ice Cream and Drowning.

19. Types of Correlations
Positive Correlation: a relationship in which increases in one variable leads to increases in the other.
Ex: Amount of fat burned is positively correlated with amount of sit-ups completed
Negative Correlation: a relationship in which increases in one variable leads to decreases in the other.
Ex: As tooth brushing goes up, tooth decay goes down

20. Some More Correlation Examples
Married people tend to have higher measures of happiness.
Children who watch high amounts of television are more aggressive.
People with low self-esteem are more likely to be depressed.
What meanings can we make of these examples?

21. Correlations Continued
Correlation Coefficient: the statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other. (number that measures strength of the correlation).
STRONGEST CORRELATIONS are +1 and – is a perfect positive correlation while –1 is a perfect negative correlation.
Correlations are always between –1 and +1. A correlation of Zero means there is no relationship.

22. Correlation Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)

23. (positive or negative)
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +.37
Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)

24. R=+.37
R=-1.00
R=+.17
R= -.08

25. Correlation Measures
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
little scatter indicates high correlation
also called a scattergram or scatter diagram

26. Height & Temperament of 20 Men1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 80 63 61 79 74 69 62 75 77 60 64 76 71 66 73 70 68 90 42 81 39 48 72 57 30 84
Subject
Height in
Inches
Temperament

27. 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
Temperament
scores
Height in inches

28. Correlation and Causation
Correlation does not prove causation
Ex- negative correlation between self-esteem and depression
Heredity and brain chemistry might play a role
Among men, length of marriage correlates positively with hair loss- because both are associated with a third factor.
Age
Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause and effect relationship, but DOES NOT prove causation

30. Intuition Limit #976
Illusory Correlation: the perception of a relationship where none exists.
Arthritis and cold weather
Sugar makes kids more hyperactive
Wet hair causes a cold
Pregnant cravings and sex of the child
Don’t overgeneralize extreme cases GET THE DATA!!

31. All of these methods look to describe the behavior not to explain it!
Summing Up Surveys, Naturalistic Observation, Case Studies, and Correlation Research
All of these methods look to describe the behavior not to explain it!
Experimental Designed research is the only research that gets at causation…NEXT TIME!

32. Random Sequences
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

33. Warm Up
Come up with one statement that would indicate a positive correlation.
Come up with one statement that would indicate a negative correlation.
What do these numbers tell you about the relationship
+ .95
-.19
+ .65
-.02
4. List 1 pro and 1 con of Correlational Research.
5. What do these graphs tell you about the variables

34. Experimentation and Statistics

35. Experiments

36. Experimentation
Experiments are the best way to isolate cause and effect
the investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects
by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors.
Breast Milk Example

37. Experimentation Research Strategies Independent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable
the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process
It can vary depending on what happens during the experiment
Cause/effect…… If/Then

38. Experimentation Research Strategies
Experimental Condition
The group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable ( real drug)
Control Condition
The group that contrasts with the experimental treatment . Get the placebo, or possible nothing
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Example- Viagra

39. Experimentation
Research Strategies
Random Assignment
assigning subjects to experimental and control conditions by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups
Want similar age, attitudes…….

40. Experimentation Research Strategies Double-blind Procedure Placebo
both the subject and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the subject has received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Placebo
an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
Placebo Effect- the effect of positive thought and willpower on an experiment

41. Variables that cause changes in the DV besides the IV
Experimentation
Confounding Variables-
Variables that cause changes in the DV besides the IV
Breast Feeding Example
Operational Definitions
Example Viagra
IV- Viagra or placebo- time, amount
DV- Sex- ………………………..

42. Ethics

43. Experimentation Problems- Sometimes not feasible or ethical
1. Obtain consent
2. Protect from harm
3. Confidential
4. Fully explain research after the exp.
Animals?
Results may not overgeneralize to other contexts

44. Statistics

45. Descriptive Statistics -
Researchers first need to organize their data
Pie Chart, Bar graph
Organize & describe the data, but don’t focus on the relationship

46. Percentage still functioning after 10 years Brand X Y Z Brand of truck
Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand X Y Z
100% 99 98 97 96 95
Percentage
still functioning
after 10 years
Brand of truck

47. Percentage still functioning after 10 years Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand X Y Z
100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percentage
still functioning
after 10 years
Brand of truck

48. Measure of Central Tendency – neatly summarizes data
Mean- average
Most commonly reported
Biased by a few extreme scores
Median- the middle score, when you arrange the score in order from the highest to lowest
50th percentile
Mode- the most frequently occurring score
Be Careful- can a few extreme scores throw off any one of the central tendencies?
What happens to the mean income of a café when Bill Gates sits down???
What's wrong with income for 62% is below average
British newspaper headline

49. Illustration of measure of central tendency 90
475
710 70
Mode Median Mean
One Family
Income per family in thousands of dollars
Mean – that balances the incomes above and below – deceptively high

50. Range– the gap between the highest and lowest score
Measures of Variation
Need to know the variation in the data, how diverse or similar the scores are.
2 ways- Range and Standard Deviation
Range– the gap between the highest and lowest score
Remember extremes scores can skew the data
475,000 and 710,000 – illustration from previous slide

51. 5, 16, 2, 7, 4, 11,2,2 Find the mean, median, mode and range
Mean – 4.5, Mode – 2, Mean – 6.1, Range – 14.

52. Measures of Variation The more useful measure is Standard Deviation
It gauges if scores are packed together or dispersed
Uses info from each score
Smaller Standard Deviation for more similar Data
Higher Standard Deviation for more diverse Data
Results are not consistent
Standard deviation is the square root of variance

54. Which of the following sets of numbers has the highest standard deviation

55. Normal Bell Curve
Percentage of scores within 1 standard deviation = 68%
Percentage of scores within 2 standard deviations = 95%
Percentage of scores within 3 standard deviation = 99.7%

57. Sample Question
Question: What would be the percentage breakdown for one standard deviation of 15 points on an IQ test with the mean of 100

58. Example Question: one standard deviation of 15 points on an IQ test with the mean of 100 , would mean 68% of your results are within 85 and 115 points

60. Look at the mean and median…

61. Look at the mean and median…

62. When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples
2. Less variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
Score are more consistent
Low small standard deviation or low range
3. More Cases Are better than few

63. When is Difference Significant?
statistical significance (p) is a measure of the likelihood that the difference between groups results from a real difference between the 2 groups rather than from chance
If statistically significant …..the differences are probably not due to chance
Statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance. It does not indicate the importance of the result