1. ISSUES OF DEVELOPMENT

2. What follows tend to apply to most LEDCs, but not to all.

3. Access to Food
Enough grain is produced to feed everyone more than 3000 calories a day.
MEDCs dump food rather than sell it for a price that is too low.
There have never been so many people suffering from starvation or malnutrition than now.

4. It is not being distributed effectively.
Why?
It is not being distributed effectively.

6. Reasons
The producer sells to the person that will pay the highest price.

7. Food aid

8. Although food production per capita is increasing in most parts of the world, it is declining in Africa.

9. Why?
Growing population

10. Characteristics of farming

11. The impact of agricultural reforms has not been felt

12. Characteristics of farming
Subsistence farming (no specialization)
Traditional farming methods (broadcasting seeds, wooden ploughs and animal power)
Poor storage facilities (insect pests)
Small divided landholdings
Absentee landlords
Agribusiness companies encourage commercial crops
Smaller number of people engaged in agriculture

13. Some countries have been more successful
(Green Revolution)
H.Y.V.s
Irrigation schemes
Chemical pesticides and fertilizers
Mechanisation

14. Access to Shelter
Shortage of accommodation is one of the most common characteristics of cities in LEDCs due to:
Less taxation
Larger proportion of income spent on food
Few large profits available for private developers
Massive rural-urban migration (shanty towns)

15. Access to Health and Education

16. Increased health risk More travel opportunities
Overcrowding and poverty
Poor water quality
Lack of toilets
Malaria (cannot afford draining swamps, rice fields)
Bilharzia

17. Industrialisation Labour-intensive, not capital-intensive
Import substitution
Export processing zones (EPZs) - offering tax holidays, low interest loans, cheap labour, exemption from normal import taxes and duties and assistance). India, Puerto Rico.
Special Economic Zones (SEFs). China
Tourism

18. Debt Debt-trap (sometimes more than aid)
Terms of trade has turned on the
LEDCS (slower rise in price on raw
materials than manufactured goods)

19. Ecologically Sustainable Development
Several phases of the study of development since World War II.

20. Structural change phase (the 1940s to the 1960s)
Rostow
The pathway to development was seen as the route followed by Western Europe and North America during the Industrial Revolution.
Five stages:
- traditional society - economic “take-off” - maturity - high mass consumption

21. Dependency approach (1970s)
Seeks to explain global patterns of development
China, Vietnam, Tanzania and Cuba followed different strategies.
Core-periphery model (unequal distribution of power - colonization, transnational companies encourage unprofitable raw materials)
Growth poles (where economic and political power is concentrated)

22. Neo-liberal counter-revolution (the 1980s)
Free market economics
Industries in LEDCs should compete effectively or close down.
Competed to attract foreign investment to introduce modern technology to upgrade inefficient industries.

23. Sustainable development (the 1990s)
The Brundtland Report
“development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
So development that increases pollution, reduces the resource base, reduces biodiversity or changes the global environment is unacceptable because it cannot be sustained in the long-term.

24. Identifies barriers to development
Heavy reliance on fossil fuels
(acid rain, global warming, deforestation, health problems, TNCs more powerful than nation-states).

25. 2. Population growth
(Development is only possible if population grows in a way that is in harmony with the changing productive capacity of the world´s ecosystems).

26. 3. Lack of a strong institutional framework to oversee the process of development, in other words of ecological and environmental decision-making).
(Governments often argue that concern for the environment is a luxury enjoyed by those who are already wealthy).