1. Chapter 4 Carbon Chapter 5 Macromolecules
AP BIOLOGY
Chapter 4 Carbon
Chapter 5 Macromolecules

2. Organic Chemistry Compounds containing C C, H, N, O, (P, S)
Miller and Urey

3. Carbon bond Formation
CH4
C2H6
C2H4

4. Hydrocarbons Organic molecules consisting of C and H only
Not prevalent in most living organisms, but most have regions of C and H
Examples: Fats
C-H are nonpolar, (similar electronegativity's)
Their rxs release lots of energy

5. Isomers
Same numbers of atoms of same elements, different in arrangement
3 types
Structural isomers
Cis-trans isomers
Enantiomers

7. Functional Groups
Groups that are directly involved in chemical reactions
Functional Group
Structure
Example
Drawing
Hydroxyl
-OH
Alcohols
Carbonyl
>CO
Ketones
Aldehydes
Carboxyl
-COOH
Carboxylic acids
Amino
-NH2
Amines
Sulfhydryl
-SH
Thiols
Phosphate
-OPO32-
Organic phosphates
Methyl
CH3
Methylated compounds

8. ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate

9. Macromolecules Chapter 5
All living things fall under 4 major classes
Carbs
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
3 of the four are HUGE on a molecular scale
(proteins, carbs, nucleic acids)

10. Monomer- building blocks of polymers
Polymer- long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by chemical bonds

11. Synthesis and Breakdown
Enzymes are specialized macromolecules that speed up reactions
Dehydration rxns (called synthesis)
Dehydration removes a water molecule, forming a new bond.

12. Synthesis and Breakdown
2. Hydrolysis- to break using water
Hydrolysis adds a water molecule, breaking a bond.

13. Carbohydrates Include both sugars and polymers of sugar
Monosaccharides (CH2O)
Molecule has a carbonyl group, and hydroxyl groups
Glucose, fructose, galactose
Disaccharides (2 monosacch. Joined by glycosidic linkage)
Glycosidic linkages are = to dehydration reaction
Maltose, sucrose, lactose

14. Carbohydrates Polysaccharides Joined by glycosidic linkages
2 major categories of polysaccharides
Storage polysaccharides
Starch- plants store as energy within plastids and cholorplasts
Others include: amylose (unbranched) amylopectin
Glycogen- animals store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells
Hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose

15. Carbohydrates 2. Structural polysaccharides
Cellulose- major component of cell wall in plants
Chitin- used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons
Exoskeleton- hard case that surrounds the soft part of an animal

16. Proteins Important in almost everything organisms do Varied functions
Catalysts- speed up rxns without being consumed in rxn

17. Proteins Polypeptides
Monomer- amino acids (all polymers are constructed from same set of 20 amino acids)
Polypeptides- polymers of amino acids
Protein- biologically functional molecule that consists of 1 or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled into a specific structure

18. Proteins
Amino acid Monomer

19. Protein Function Enzymatic-accelerate chemical rxns
Defensive- protection against disease
Storage
Transport- movement across cell membranes
Hormonal
Receptor- response of cells to chemical stimuli
Contractile/motor- movement
Structural- support
(see page 78 for more detail)

20. Proteins
Amino acid polymers
Monomers link together via peptide bonds

21. Levels of Protein Structure
Primary
Linked series of a.a. with a unique sequence

22. Levels of Protein Structure
2. Secondary
Coiled or folded patterns
Alpha helix- coil
Beta-pleated sheet- accordion looking

23. Levels of Protein Structure
3. Tertiary
Overall shape resulting from interactions of side chains
Interactions:
Hydrophobic interaction
Disulfide bridges
Ionic bonds
H bonds

24. Levels of Protein Structure
4. Quaternary
Overall structure that is make up of polypeptide subunits

25. Denaturation and Renaturation
Denaturation- when proteins become destroyed, lose its native shape due to changes in temp, pH, salinity, etc.

26. Lipids
Large class of large biomolecules that does not include true polymers
All lipids share one important trait:
They mix poorly, hydrophobic, hydrocarbons
Lipids include:
Fats
Phospholipids
Steroids
Waxes and pigments

27. Lipids
Fats
Fat is constructed from two kids of small molecules (glycerol and fatty acids)
Fatty acid- has a long C skeleton with carboxyl group
Hydrocarbons are reason why lipids are hydrophobic

28. Lipids Saturated fatty acid Unsaturated fatty acid
No double bonds exist
Animal fats- lard, butter (solid at room temp.)
Unsaturated fatty acid
Has 1 or > double bonds
Most are cis
Plant and fish fat – oils, olive oil (liquid at room temp.)

29. Phospholipids Make up cell membranes
Similar to fat but with 2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol.
When added with water they self assemble into a bilayer

30. Steroids Lipids characterized by C consisting to 4 fused rings.
Cholesterol- within animal cell membranes also a precursor for which all other cell membranes are synthesized
Synthesized in the liver
hormones

31. Nucleic Acids Genes- units of DNA
Nucleic acids- polymers made of monomers called nucleotides
Roles of Nucleic Acids-
DNA
Genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents
RNA
Interacts with cell’s protein synthesizing machinery part of a protein

32. DNA RNA Protein

33. DNA vs RNA Double stranded Deoxyribose sugar Thymine Single stranded
Uracil

34. Nucleotides
Structure:

35. 2 families of Nitrogenous Bases
Pyrimidines
Cytosine
Uracil
Thymine
Purine
Adenine
Guanine