1. Early Species of the Genus Homo
Chapter 14
Early Species of the Genus Homo

2. First Dispersal of the Hominins
Close to 2 million years ago, hominins expanded out of Africa into other areas of the Old World.
Since the early hominin fossils have been found only in Africa, it seems that hominins were restricted to this continent for as long as 5 million years.

3. First Dispersal of the Hominins
The later, more widely dispersed hominins were larger, more committed to a terrestrial habitat and used elaborate stone tools.
There is some variation among the different geographical groups of these hominins, and anthropologists still debate how to classify them.

4. First Dispersal of the Hominins
After 2 mya, there’s less diversity in these hominins than in their pre-australopith and australopith predecessors.
There is universal agreement that the hominins found outside of Africa are members of genus Homo.
Homo erectus (which here includes H. ergaster) is the species for which there is the most evidence.

5. The Homo Genus Increased brain size (from 509-1880 cc).
Between 1.6 mya and 300 kya, the brain dramatically increased in size.
Size increased much more rapidly among Homo species than Australopithecus, especially after 700 kya.
Reduction in face and teeth size.

6. Trend in Increasing Cranial Capacity (Fig. 11.1)

7. The Homo Genus Increased dependence on cultural adaptations.
This included increasingly sophisticated stone tool technology, but also the use of fire, complex hunting and gathering strategies, and symbolic expression.

8. Early Homo
The earliest evidence dates back to about 2.5 mya from sites in Ethiopia and Kenya.
However, it is too fragmentary to assign a species.
It may represent the ancestor of H. habilis, H. rudolfensis, and H. erectus.

9. Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis
The early Homo fossils were originally placed into a single species, Homo habilis.
Finds occurred at Olduvai Gorge and Koobi Fora.
If split into two species:
Homo habilis consists of the smaller individuals
Homo rudolfensis is composed of the larger individuals

10. Homo habilis 2-1.5 mya, East and South Africa.
Brain size (c. 610 cc) was about 30% larger than Australopithecus and 50% of modern humans (H.s.s.).
Primitive postcranial skeleton (small and long arms).
Smaller teeth, but larger than H.s.s.

11. Homo habilis

12. Homo habilis
“Able man” because it is the first hominid associated with stone tools.
Lower Palaeolithic/ Oldowan tradition stone tool technology, which would have required skill and rudimentary culture. (Jurmain attributes Oldowan origin to H. erectus).
Seems they, like Australopithecines, were scavengers.

13. Oldowan Tools

14. Homo rudolfensis 1.9 mya, Kenya, Africa.
Brain (c. 752 cc) slightly larger than H. habilis.
Evidence that brain was structurally more similar to modern humans than to earlier hominids.

15. Homo rudolfensis
Yet dental and facial features are closer to Australopithecines.
There is still debate as to whether it is a separate species or another H. habilis specimen.

16. Homo rudolfensis

17. Evolutionary Relationships
Given the dates of both H. habilis and H. rudolfensis, it is possible that neither one is directly ancestral to later humans.
Homo erectus (“upright walking human”), which also arose 2 mya in Africa, is the best candidate for an ancestor to later humans.

18. Homo erectus and Homo ergaster
Homo ergaster is a new species name proposed for the African representatives of what was formerly called Homo erectus.
Homo erectus fossils are the first found outside Africa, in places such as Indonesia, China, and the former Soviet Union.

19. Homo erectus
Discoveries from East Africa have established Homo erectus by 1.7 m.y.a.
Some researchers see anatomical differences between the African and Asian discoveries.
They place African fossils into the Homo ergaster species.
Analyses show that H. erectus/ergaster represents closely related species and possibly geographical varieties of a single species

20. Homo erectus and Homo ergaster
Following the “lumping” paradigm, H. erectus and H. ergaster are treated as variants of the same species for this course, with the entire lumped species having originated in Africa.

21. Homo erectus: Distribution in Time & Space
1.9 mya – 200 kya (?).
The first hominid species to move out of Africa.
Originated in Africa, then immigrated into Eastern Europe ( mya), Indonesia (1.6 mya), then China (800 kya), suggesting quick migrations.

22. Homo erectus: Major Sites (Fig. 11.6)

24. Homo erectus: Distribution in Time & Space
Evidence suggests it survived until at least 200 kya.
However there is evidence that it survived until 53 kya in Indonesia.
If the remains in Indonesia are H. erectus, it means it lived alongside modern humans (cladogenesis).

25. Homo erectus – A New Kind of Hominin
The first hominin to expand into new regions of the Old World.
As a species, H. erectus existed over 1 million years.
We can understand its success as a hominid species based on behavioral capacities (i.e. more elaborate tool use) and physical changes (i.e. larger).

26. Homo erectus

27. Morphology of Homo erectus
Living in different environments over much of the Old World, H. erectus populations shared several common physical traits included in the following list:

28. H. erectus: Brain Size 700 to 1250 cc (average about 10000 cc)
Brain size linked with overall body size
Larger-bodied than early Homo but relative brain size is about the same
Relative brain size is much less encephalized than later members of genus Homo
Around 50% larger than other contemporary Homo species
71% the size of H.s.s.
Size increased over time

29. Early Australopithecus & Homo Cranial Capacities

30. H. erectus: Skull
Lesser development in frontal lobes of brain compared to moderns, suggesting they were not as intelligent.
Skull is lower and face protrudes, but not as much as earlier hominids.

31. H. erectus: Skull Bony ridge (saggital keel)
suggesting powerful neck muscles.
Brow ridges, characteristic of erectus and archaic humans.

33. H. erectus: Teeth
Jaw and teeth are larger than moderns’ but smaller than earlier hominids; decreased back teeth size.
This is evidence of significant meat consumption

34. Why It Matters
Increased meat consumption may have that led to increased brain and body size in Homo erectus and, ultimately, to geographical expansion.
Homo erectus, with a large brain, may have been the first ancestor to rely on appreciable amounts of animal protein, and descendants continue the pattern of nutrients required to maintain it.

35. H. erectus: Body
Similar body proportions to AMH.: arms of similar length (earlier species had longer arms).
Adults up to 5’ 5” to 6’ tall (taller than most H.s.s. populations) and c. 100 lb.
Narrow pelvis compared to AMH, indicating that the postnatal brain growth of moderns began with erectus

36. H. erectus: Body Size
Sexually dimorphic, weight and height varied according to sex
Increased robusticity (heavily built body) that dominated hominin evolution until anatomically modern H. sapiens

38. Acheulian Tools Lower Palaeolithic/ Acheulian tradition.
At first like Oldowan, but by 1.5 mya, the technology became more diverse, specialized, and sophisticated.
Bifaces (more efficient to cut, scrape, pound, & dig), hand axes, bamboo?
These vary regionally, indicating cultural variation.

39. Acheulian Tools

40. Oldowan
Acheulian

41. Homo erectus: Hunting and Gathering
Animal bones with tool marks show clear meat consumption. They are more fragmented, suggesting greater use of the animal carcasses.
The evidence is not clear if they hunted; H. erectus (and the other Lower Palaeolithic hominins) was likely a scavenger, but may have hunted small game.

42. Homo erectus: Social Organization
Anthropological analogy suggests that erectus likely lived in small social groups that formed bands like historic and modern foragers.
Lived in caves, but some may have constructed shelters. Stein & Rowe say possible dwelling has been found in southern France that is approximately 400,000 years old. If this is a constructed shelter, it could be associated with H. erectus or H. heidelbergensis.

43. Homo erectus: Fire! Inconclusive evidence of fire-use back 1.5 mya.
The earliest proposed date for the controlled use of fire is 1 mya from a site in Israel.
Zhoukoudian, China (790 kya): burned animal bones and ash; but it is not clear if they made fire or used natural fire.

44. Homo erectus: Fire!
This began the uniquely hominoid practice of intentionally using an external energy source.
The use of fire is thought to have been necessary to move out of the warmer tropical regions and into cooler regions in Europe.

46. The Pleistocene
The Pleistocene, often called the Ice Age, was marked by advances and retreats of massive continental glaciations.
At least 15 major and 50 minor glacial advances have been documented in Europe.
Hominins were impacted as the climate, flora, and animal life shifted.

47. Middle Pleistocene Late Pleistocene
The portion of the Pleistocene epoch beginning 780,000 ya and ending 125,000 ya.
Late Pleistocene
The portion of the Pleistocene epoch beginning 125,000 ya and ending approximately 10,000 ya.

48. Changing Pleistocene Environments in Africa

49. Changing Pleistocene Environments in Eurasia
Changing migration routes.

50. Archaic Humans: General Characteristics
Some consider all the archaic specimens members of “archaic H. sapiens”.
Others believe there were at least three species of Homo: H. antecessor, H. heidelbergensis, and H. neanderthalensis (Neanderthals).
Most consider H. heidelbergensis to be ancestral to AMH.

51. Middle Pleistocene Hominins
Widely distributed in Africa, Asia and Europe, replacing earlier hominins in previously exploited habitats (or coexisting as in Southeast Asia)
Exhibit several H. erectus characteristics
Large face, projected brows, low forehead, and thick cranial vault
Increased brain size, rounded braincase, vertical nose, and reduced occipital

52. H. heidelbergensis: Distribution
A jaw from Spain dated to over 1 mya and a cranial remain from Italy dated to 850 kya may represent transitional forms from H. erectus to H. heidelbergensis.
kya.
Fossils have been found primarily in Europe (Boxgrove, England c. 500 kya), but also in Africa (Bodo, Ethiopia c. 600 kya) and Asia (Yuncian, China c. 350 kya), though some disagree with this assignation.

54. H. heidelbergensis: Physical Characteristics
Large brains (c. 1,100-1,400 cc), within the same range as AMH.
The average size was ,200 cc, roughly 30% more than H. erectus and 10% less than living humans.

55. H. heidelbergensis: Physical Characteristics
Main difference from AMH:
Skulls were lower and less well rounded in the back with large brow ridges.
Face and teeth were larger and no chins.
They often had thicker bones and greater musculature.

56. Homo heidelbergensis Skull From Zambia
The Kabwe (Broken Hill) Homo heidelbergensis skull from Zambia.
Note the robust browridges.

57. Bodo Cranium The earliest evidence of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa.
Possibly defleshed with stone tools.

58. ‘Rhodesian Man’/Broken Hill, Zambia, 700-400 kya (others say 300-125 kya)

59. Other H. heidelbergensis specimens
Arago, France, kya
Petrolana, Greece, kya
Steinheim, Germany, ~250 kya

60. H. heidelbergensis: Stone Tool Technology
Continued using Acheulian technologies (hand axes, etc), but improved upon them.
Also associated with more complex tools made with the Levallois [luh-val-wah] method.
This requires more skill and suggests more complex forethought and planning.

61. The Levallois Method

62. Levallois-produced tools, Hovk, Armenia

63. Middle Pleistocene Culture
Premodern human populations continued to live in caves and open-air sites, but they may have increased their use of caves.
Chinese archaeologists believe that many Middle Pleistocene sites in China contain evidence of human-controlled fire.

64. Middle Pleistocene Culture
Concentrations of bones, stones, & artifacts at several sites suggest Middle Pleistocene hominids built temporary structures, such as the 400 ky old possible shelter in France.
Evidence they exploited different food sources, fruits, vegetables, fish, seeds, nuts, and bird eggs.
Also exploited marine life, a new innovation in human evolution.

65. H. heidelbergensis: Hunting
While the evidence is ambiguous for H. erectus, it is much clearer that H. heidelbergensis hunted.
Several sites show evidence of butchered animals prior to scavenging by animals, meaning the early humans had first access.

66. H. heidelbergensis: Hunting
Remains of several butchered rhinos at Boxgrove, England, showing first access.
Several wooden spears or javelins, between 3 and 8 ft long and dated to 400 kya, were also found with the remains of perhaps 19 horses at Schöningen, Germany.

67. H. heidelbergensis the Hunter

68. H. heidelbergensis: Language
Our closest ape relatives have some language abilities, suggesting our shared common ancestor did, as well.
Research into fossil cranium endocasts indicates the ability was developing in H. erectus and concluded by H. heidelbergensis.

69. H. heidelbergensis: Language
The argument for language ability is further supported by the evidence for:
More complex tool technologies requiring more complex learning
And the hunting of very large game, which requires coordinated cooperation.

70. Homo neanderthalensis
Specimens of Homo neanderthalenis have been found in Europe and the Middle East, dating between c. 300 to 30 kya.

72. Neanderthals: Physical Characteristics
Very large brains, on averge 1,450 cc.
This is the larger than AMH, but in terms of overall body size, it was relatively smaller.
Fossil cranium endocasts show they were structurally similar to AMH.

73. Neanderthals: Physical Characteristics
They had low skulls, sloping forehead, no chins, and large brow ridges.
They also had occipital buns, typical of earlier hominids.

74. Neanderthals: Physical Characteristics
Relatively larger front teeth showing wear indicating they were used as tools.
Long, protruding faces compared to AMH.

75. La Chapelle-aux-Saints Skull
Note the occipital bun, projecting face, and low vault.

78. Neanderthals: Physical Characteristics
They had large noses and relatively stocky bodies and limbs hypothesized to reflect an adaptation to Bergmann-Allen cold adaptations).

79. Neanderthal (lt) compared to a modern human (rt) (Fig. 12.14)

80. Neanderthals: DNA
Studies of DNA are ambiugous. Some show there was GF between Neanderthals and early modern humans (meaning Neanderthal was a human subspecies), others suggest they are different species.
Currently, scientists are attempting to sequence the entire Neanderthal DNA genome, which will help clarify the relationship.

81. Genetic evidence for GF
Tremendous advances in past 15 years in sequencing Neandertal mitochondrial and nuclear DNA
Modern human populations outside of Africa possess1-4% of distinctive Neandertal DNA
Melanesian populations contain 4-5% of distinctive Denisovan DNA
Suggests interbreeding of premodern and modern populations

82. Neanderthals: DNA and Variation
A 2007 international study of Neanderthal DNA found that they may have varied as much as modern humans in terms of skin and hair color.
The remains of individuals suggest at least 1% of Neanderthals were likely redheads.

83. Evolutionary Relationships: Anagenic
One model is anagenic: H. heidelbergensis evolved into archaic humans (including Neanderthals), which led to AMH.
In this model, Neanderthals are a subspecies of human, H. sapiens neanderthalensis.

84. Evolutionary Relationships: Cladistic
Another is cladistic.
Around kya, one line branch off and led to Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis), the other to AMH (H. sapiens).
In this model, Neanderthals were a separate species that survived in Europe until at least 28 kya.

85. Phylogeny of genus Homo - Considerable Species Diversity/ Cladistic

86. Neanderthals: Culture
They developed the more complex Mousterian tradition of prepared-core stone tool technology (based on the previous Levallois method of H. heidelbergensis).
They continued the Levallois method, but developed more variety, especially scrapers.
They also developed thinned tools to attach to handles and spears.

87. Mousterian Stone Tools

88. Mousterian Stone Tools
[Stein & Rowe Figure Mousterian industries]

90. Subsistence
Faunal remains demonstrate that Neandertals were successful hunters.
Used close-proximity spears for hunting (spear thrower & bow & arrow weren’t invented until the Upper Paleolithic).
Patterns of trauma in Neandertal remains match those of contemporary rodeo performers, indicating close proximity to prey.

91. Neanderthals: Ritual?
Several European and Middle Eastern burial sites indicate flexed bodies and evidence of fire and pollen, which suggests flowers were intentionally put there.
These interpretations are debated- the pollen may have been brought by rodents.

92. Neanderthals: Ritual?
There are is also evidence of animal bones & stone tools that appear to be grave goods.
In any case, this is the first evidence of deliberate hominid burials, suggesting symbolic expression and the possibility of spiritual beliefs.
Also evidence some practiced cannibalism.

93. Neanderthals: Ritual?
Reconstruction of the possible Neanderthal burial at Shanidar Cave, Iraq, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City

94. Neanderthals: Health and Society
Many fossils provide evidence that of the elderly, as well as individuals who survived despite illnesses and disabilities.
This indicates compassion and a social system that involved food and resource sharing.
However, these individuals also likely contributed to the group’s survival.

95. Neanderthals: Language
Recent evidence, especially of the hyoid bone, suggests they were capable of speech (the consensus).
It also appears that Neanderthal brain anatomy did not lack speech centers.
Even if Neandertals did speak, they did not have the same language capabilities of modern Homo sapiens.

96. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans
Tool Technology
Numerous flake tools; few highly specialized; use of bone, antler, or ivory very rare; few tools with more than one or two parts
Many varieties of stone tools; many for specialized functions; frequent use of bone, antler, and ivory; many tools comprised of two or more component parts

97. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans
Hunting Efficiency and Weapons
No long-distance hunting weapons; close-proximity weapons used
Use of spear-thrower and bow and arrow; wider range of social contacts, perhaps larger, more organized hunting parties (including game drives)

98. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans
Stone Material Transport
Stone materials transported only short distances
Stone tool raw materials transported over longer distances, implying wider social networks and perhaps trade

99. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans
Art
Uncommon; probably mostly personal; some items misinterpreted as “art”; others may be intrusive from overlying Upper Paleolithic contexts; cave art absent
Artwork more common, transportable objects as well as elaborate cave art; well executed, using a variety of materials and techniques; stylistic sophistication

100. Cultural Contrasts: Neandertals and Upper Paleolithic Modern Humans
Burial
Deliberate burial at several sites; graves unelaborated; graves frequently lack artifacts
Burials more complex, frequently including tools and remains of animals