1. Introduction to Ethics
Socrates 470 BC – 399BC
Introduction to Ethics

2. Introduction to Ethics
Ethics is the field of Philosophy which investigates the difference between good and evil to evaluate humans’ choices and actions.
Questions dealt with in Ethics:
– What is the best way people should live?
– What is the the right conduct for a given situation? And the wrong one?
– What makes a virtuous life? And a vicious one?
– What is happiness and how can we lead a happy life?

3. The Socratic Origin of Ethics
Socrates marks a rupture in Philosophy:
– Philosophy ceases to be an inquiry upon the arché (the common element that constitutes and is the origin of everything).
– Socrates puts the Human in the center of the Philosophical investigation.
Socrates: how can we investigate the arché if we don’t even know what are human beings?

4. The Socratic Origin of Ethics
More important than reflecting upon the arché is the investigation upon human happiness and a virtuous life:
Why investigate the kosmos and ignore what is happiness?
How can we lead a happy, virtuous life?

5. The case of Socrates – Maieutic: Dialogical and Interrogative Method.
– Two Principles:
– “I know that I know nothing”
– “Know thyself”
– These Principles were formulated so that people could know themselves and thus be free and happy.
– This Method involved questioning the established opinions and values.

6. “I know that I know nothing”
Socrates
“I know that I know nothing”
– Socrates’ Wisdom was restricted to admitting that he did not know.
– When we think we know something we actually don’t, we make mistakes and take wrong courses of action.
– Therefore, it is preferable to know our own ignorance than to pretend we know something we don’t.
– Why does Socrates stops investigating the arché and turns to the Human, ethic questions?

7. Socrates “Know thyself”
– This saying is inscribed on the entrance of the temple of Delphi (dedicated to Apollo, the God of Truth, Prophecy, Sun and Light…)
– Know thyself could be interpreted as: ‘only the Gods are truly wise and know things for sure! We, humans, must admit we don’t know!’
– The second of Socrates’ Principles aims at reducing unhappiness and the margin for errors.

8. Introduction to Ethics
Is there a Supreme Good or is it a Relative Value?
Socrates against the sophists:
Sophists:
– masters of rhetoric and relativists (there is no supreme or absolute Good or Value)
– they presented themselves as teachers of virtue, and taught the art of persuasion (a valuable skill to obtain victories in the assemblies and courts of the democratic regime).

9. Socrates Against the Sophists?
Sophists were people who mastered the art of rhetoric.
Rhetoric is the use of language and words in order to persuade the audience.
The Sophists claimed they could find the answer to all questions and even effectively defend opposite ideas.
Most of them, for a fee, taught other people rhetoric.

10. Socrates Against the Sophists?
Protagoras, a famous Sophist, is said to have invented the Dialogical and Interrogative Method that Socrates used.
Plato and Xenophon represent Socrates as a fierce critic of the sophists – Why?
Aristophanes depicts Socrates as a sophist among others.

11. The Dialogical and Interrogative Method
Why did Socrates use this Method?
Why is it Dialogical?
Why is it Interrogative?

12. The Life of Socrates
Socrates was an Athenian citizen, of a humble origin, that dedicated his life to Philosophy and finding wisdom.
He didn’t leave any writings – all we know about him comes from other people’s reports, specially Plato (his disciple), Xenophon (who lived after Socrates died), and Aristophanes (a playwright of comedies).
He fought in the Peloponnesian war and was a great fighter.

13. The Life of Socrates
The Oracle of Delphi said that he was the wisest man in Greece.
Socrates didn’t believe this because he believed he possessed no wisdom whatsoever (“I know that I know nothing”).
Then he walked around the town talking to people considered to be wise (statesmen, generals, poets, artisans…), asking them if they knew what justice and goodness were.

14. The Life of Socrates
His interlocutors would then tell him their theories and Socrates, in turn, would show them how they were mistaken, pointing contradictions and imprecisions on their ideas.
Socrates was wiser than them because, while they thought they knew very much and considered themselves to be wise, Socrates knew and admitted he was ignorant – being the only person who was aware of his own ignorance.

15. The Life of Socrates
This way, Socrates made many enemies, because he made the most important people in Athens seem like foolish.
His enemies accused him of impiety (not believing in the gods) and corrupting the minds of the young people who walked beside him.
He was judged and convicted of death by poison.

17. Next Step This Semester we will simulate the trial of Socrates.
Four groups: accusers, defenders, judge (1 person; leads the trial and sets the order) and jury.