1. APES REVIEW

2. Matter and Energy in the environment
Organization of Matter
Non-living Matter
Atoms, Ions, and Compounds
Atoms = smallest unit of elements and are listed on periodic table. The nucleus of an atom is composed of neutrons and protons (+). Electrons (-) exist outside the nucleus. All atoms are isotopes of some other atom that has the same # of protons but a different # of neutrons

3. Ions = atoms or combinations of atoms
that demonstrate an unbalanced electrical charge.
-This happens when the total # of electrons
does not equal the total # of protons.
More electrons than protons = neg charge = ANION
More protons than electrons = pos charge = CATION
Monoatomic ions involve only one atom
Polyatomic ions involve more than one atom

4. Common Mono- and Polyatomic Ions in APES
Mono- or Poly-
Ion Symbol
Name of Ion
Monoatomic Ions
Cl-
Chloride
O2-
Oxide
S2-
Sulfide
Ca2+
Calcium
Pb2+
Lead
Hg2+
Mercury
Polyatomic Ions
NO2-
Nitrite
NO3-
Nitrate
SO42-
Sulfate
CO32-
Carbonate
PO43-
Phosphate

5. Compounds
Compounds are combinations of atoms held together by ionic or covalent bonds.
Ionic compounds form when Neg chrg nonmetal combines with an ionic attraction to a Pos chrg metal.
Ex. calcium chloride, CaCl2.
Molecules are combinations of nonmetal atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Organic molecules are carbon-based molecules that also contain H, and sometimes O, N, or S

6. Polar Molecules
Molecules are compounds of nonmetals covalently bound together.
Polar molecules contain separation of elec chrg w/in the molecule that helps it to be attracted to ions or other polar molecules.
-This causes a slight negative charge near the oxygen and a slight positive charge near the hydrogen.
Ex. Water H2O polarity of water is strong enough to break apart some ionic compounds which causes them to dissolve, or go into solution

7. Acids and bases
A single proton, or hydrogen ion (H+), can be removed from water when some substances are dissolved in it.
If a substance creates a hydrogen ion when put in water it is called an ACID.
If a substance creates a hydroxide ion (OH-) when it is placed in water, it is called a BASE.
H+ + OH- = H2O

8. pH scale
The concentration of protons or hydroxide ions in solution is pH. (measuring acidity or alkalinity)
The pH of 7.0 is neutral
The pH of < 7 is acidic
The pH of > 7 is basic
Each whole-number drop in pH represents a 10-fold increase in acidity

9. States of matter 4 states of matter Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
solid liquid vapor
(heat) (heat)

10. Organization of matter
Living Matter p.66
Cells
Tissues and Organ Systems
Organisms or Species
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere
Small to broad focus

11. Conservation of Matter
Chemical reactions
Changes in the arrangement of molecules
Matter cannot be created or destroyed
Once a chemical reaction is complete, equilibrium has been established between the reactants and products
CO2 + H2O H2CO H+ + HCO3-

12. Nutrient cycles A.k.a. Biogeochemical Cycles
Carbon Cycle (biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere)
Nitrogen Cycle (biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere)
Phosphorus Cycle (remains as Phosphate ion throughout the whole cycle – no gaseous phase) (biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere)
Sulfur Cycle (biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere)
Hydrologic Cycle (biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere)

13. Conservation of energy
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can change forms
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Transfers of energy decrease the amount of useful energy
Entropy is the amount of useful energy lost per amount of matter. This disperses as heat and becomes scattered or disordered.
As heat disperses, entropy increases

14. Heat transfers Convection Conduction Radiation
Efficiency – For any transfer of energy, the amount of energy that is useful from one step to another is considered the efficiency of the transfer. (%)
Ex. Coal-fire power plant derives an amount of electrical energy that is 38% of the total amt of chemical energy stored in coal, so it is considered 38% efficient. The rest of that energy is lost to heat and accounts for the increase in entropy.

15. Energy movement through ecosystems
Ecosystems are characterized by how energy is obtained, converted into chemical energy, and transferred from one organism to another.
Productivity is the amount of biomass that is produced by a community.
Primary Productivity is the amount of biomass produced by photosynthetic organisms.
Secondary productivity is the amount of biomass produced by organisms that eat photosynthetic organisms.

16. Food Chains and Food Webs
Food chains are sequences of organisms that begin with a primary producer and trace the movement of biomass through a series or predator/prey relationships.
Food webs are interconnecting series of food chains.
Each step along along the food chain is a trophic level.
Each step only converts about 10% of ingested biomass into biomass available for the next trophic level.

17. Case studies to research
Water Treatment and the Nitrogen Cycle
Composting Wastes: Combining Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles
Energy Efficiency of Lights

18. citations
Miller, G T. Living In the Environment. 13th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Print.
Reel, Kevin R. AP Environmental Science. 2nd ed. USA: Research and Education Association, Print.
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