1. Adolescent Psychology
Chapter 5: Gender

2. What is Gender? Is there a difference between gender & sex?
Gender refers to the psychological & sociocultural dimensions of being male or female.
A gender role is a set of expectations that prescribes how females & males should think, act, & feel.

3. Biological Influences on Gender
Puberty intensifies sexual aspects of gender attitudes & behaviors
Anatomy is destiny…
Freud & Erikson
Evolutionary Psychology
Behaviors differ by gender due to what has been adaptive and led to procreation over evolutionary history
Gender & Brain development
Not much research…
2007 study indicates, peak seems to correspond to pubertal development (earlier for girls)
2009 study indicates by early adulthood gender similarities are most notable
In adult brain: - one part of hypothalamus involved in sexual bx larger in males than females – area of brain involved in visospacial skills tends to be larger in males – females brains tend to be smaller (head size) but females brains tend to have more folds allowing for more surface area of brain tissue for females than males.
Brain difference findings are often inconsistent or not linked to actual psychological differences

4. Social Influences on Gender
Social Role Theory:
gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of males and females
Females: less power, status, and resources
Social hierarchy causes gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurturing (Eagly, 2009)
Parental Influences on Gender
By example & by action
Socialization Strategies
Gender differences …independence, expectations, goals
The social cognitive theory of gender
Gender development is influenced by observation & imitation of others’ gender behavior, as well as by the rewards & punishments they experience for gender- appropriate & gender-inappropriate behavior
Sibling Influences
Others believe that gender differences mainly result from social experiences.
Social Role Theory: gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of males and females, with females having less power and status and controlling fewer resources than men. –social hierarchy and division of labor are causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurturing (Eagly, 2009).
Parents: provide the first model of gender bx
Socialization strategies: parents interact different with their children

5. Social Influences on Gender
Peers
“Gender School”
Teased or Reinforced…accepted or rejected
Schools & Teachers
Compliance, following rules, & being neat &orderly are valued & reinforced in many classrooms
A large majority of teachers are females
Boys are more likely than girls to have learning problems
Boys are more likely than girls to be criticized
School personnel tend to stereotype boys’ behavior as problematic.
Is the classroom problematic for boys?
So is the classroom problematic for girls?
The Mass Media
Adolescent heightened sensitivity to TV messages about gender roles
Television shows directed at adolescents are extremely stereotyped in their portrayal of the sexes
Influences sexism, body image…
Peers: by mid to late childhood, preference for being with same sex peers, teaching and reinforcing
Boys get more instruction and attention from teachers than boys. Boys are more likely to get lower grades, yet girls believe in their ability to succeed in academic settings less!! Boys tend to report more career oriented goals than girls do!

6. Cognitive Influences on Gender
Individuals actively construct their gender world
Observation, imitation, rewards, punishments
Adolescent interacts with environment
Internal motivation to conform -- acceptance
Gender Schema Theory
Gender-typing emerges as individuals gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.
Gender schema: cognitive structure that organizes the world in terms of “male” & “female”
Observations, imitations, rewards, punishments – mechanisms by which gender develops
Children and adolescents are internally motivated to conform with gender schemas
Cognitive factors contribute to way adolescent think and act as female or male
Through biological, social, and cognitive processe children develop their gender attitudes and bxs

7. Gender Stereotypes Gender stereotypes Sexism
Are broad categories that reflect our impressions & beliefs about females & males.
What is “feminine” & “masculine”
Sexism
Prejudice & discrimination against an individual because of his or her sex.

8. Gender Stereotypes

9. Gender Similarities & Differences
Physical Similarities & Differences
Life expectancy
Brain differences ?
Cognitive Similarities & Differences
Math, (?) visuospatial, and verbal skills (?)
Overall interest in academics
Socioemotional Similarities & Differences
Aggression
Communication in relationships
Prosocial bx – bx intended to benefit others
Self-regulation of emotion and bx

10. Gender Similarities & Differences
Some examples of brain differences:
Portion of hypothalamus involved with sex tends to be larger in males than females
Portions of corpus callosum tends to larger in females than in males
Males tend to be better at visio-spatial skills
Females tend to show more brain activity involved in emotional expression
Female smaller brain, but more surface area than males
**similarities and differences could be due to heredity and evolution AND/OR social experiences – remember we see learning in the brain!!

11. Socioemotional Similarities & Differences
Aggression
Physical vs. Relational
Communication in Relationships
Rapport talk: language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships. Females enjoy rapport talk and conversation that is relationship oriented more than boys do.
Report talk: Talk that gives information. Males tend to hold center stage though such verbal performances as storytelling, joking, and lecturing with information.
Communication competence appears to vary with context
Group size – girls more competent in large groups
Speaking with peers or adults – girls talk with adults more
Familiarity – self-assertive speech (boys use more) with unfamiliar individuals
Age – gender difference in affiliative speech greatest during adolescence

12. More on Socioemotional…
Prosocial Behavior:
Girls
Kind and considerate behavior (not sharing)
Emotional self-regulation
Boys are more likely to hide there “negative” emotions, beginning in childhood
By SELF-REPORT…girls are more likely to experience sadness, shame, guilt in adolescence
Boys tend to have lower emotional self-regulation skills, which can lead to behavior problems (self- control, impulse control, )

13. Similarities/Differences? Gender Controversy
Extent of true gender differences
Gender differences have been greatly exaggerated by mass media, pop psychology…
Males & Females are similar on most psychological factors

14. Gender in Context
Context
Culture
Education

15. Masculinity & Femininity
Class participation time…

16. Androgyny
Androgyny: presence of a high degree of both masculine & feminine traits
Advocates of androgyny programs (in education) argue that traditional sex- typing is harmful for all students & especially has prevented many girls from experiencing equal opportunity

17. Problems with Traditional Masculinity in Adolescent Development
“Boy code”: socialized to not show feelings & act tough
Boys could benefit from being socialized to express anxieties & concerns
Premarital sex
Alcohol & drugs
Delinquent activities

18. Critics of the Androgyny Perspective
Gender-role Transcendence
The view that when an individual’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on a person basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny (Pleck, 1983).

19. Developmental Changes & Junctures
Gender intensification hypothesis
Psychological & behavioral differences between boys & girls become greater during early adolescence
This is due to increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional masculine & feminine gender roles
Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for Females?
Awareness of male dominated culture
Lack of value placed on intimacy vs. expected to be caring & altruistic
To be selfish or selfless?
Voice not valued?