1. Chapter 4-4 routing and IP routing

2. Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction
4.2 Virtual circuit and datagram networks
4.3 What’s inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
4.5 Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
4.6 Routing in the Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 Broadcast and multicast routing
routing and IP routing 2

3. Logical Structure of Internet
host
router
router
router
host
router
router
router
Ad hoc interconnection of networks
No particular topology
Vastly different router & link capacities
Send packets from source to destination by hopping through networks
Router connect one network to another
Different paths to destination may exist
routing and IP routing

4. Getting to a Destination
How do you get driving directions?
Intersectionsrouters
Roadslinks/networks
Roads change slowly
routing and IP routing

5. What is routing? R3 A B C R1 R2 R4 D E F R5 R5 F R3 E D Next Hop
Destination
routing and IP routing

6. What is routing? R3 A B C R1 R2 R4 D E F R5 32 Data Options (if any)16 32 4 1
Data
Options (if any)
Destination Address
Source Address
Header Checksum
Protocol
TTL
Fragment Offset
Flags
Fragment ID
Total Packet Length
T.Service
HLen
Ver
20 bytes D D D R5 F R3 E D
Next Hop
Destination
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7. What is routing? A B C R1 R2 R3 R4 D E F R5
routing and IP routing

8. Bridge
routing and IP routing

9. Interplay between routing, forwarding1 2 3
0111
value in arriving
packet’s header
routing algorithm
local forwarding table
header value
output link
0100
0101
1001
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10. Graph abstraction z x u y w v 5 2 3 1 Graph: G = (N,E)
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts
Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections
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11. Graph abstraction: costsu y x w v z 2 1 3 5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
- e.g., c(w,z) = 5
cost could always be 1, or
inversely related to bandwidth,
or inversely related to
congestion
Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)
Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?
Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path
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12. Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized information?
Global:
all routers have complete topology, link cost info
“link state” algorithms
Decentralized:
router knows physically-connected neighbors, link costs to neighbors
iterative process of computation, exchange of info with neighbors
“distance vector” algorithms
Static or dynamic?
Static:
routes change slowly over time
Dynamic:
routes change more quickly
periodic update
in response to link cost changes
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13. Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction
4.2 Virtual circuit and datagram networks
4.3 What’s inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
4.5 Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
4.6 Routing in the Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 Broadcast and multicast routing
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14. A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
net topology, link costs known to all nodes
accomplished via “link state broadcast”
all nodes have same info
computes least cost paths from one node (‘source”) to all other nodes
gives forwarding table for that node
iterative: after k iterations, know least cost path to k dest.’s
Notation:
c(x,y): link cost from node x to y; = ∞ if not direct neighbors
D(v): current value of cost of path from source to dest. v
p(v): predecessor node along path from source to v
N': set of nodes whose least cost path definitively known
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15. Dijsktra’s Algorithm 1 Initialization: 2 N' = {u} 3 for all nodes v
if v adjacent to u
then D(v) = c(u,v)
else D(v) = ∞ 7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
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16. Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step 1 2 3 4 5 N' u ux
uxy
uxyv
uxyvw
uxyvwz
D(v),p(v)
2,u
D(w),p(w)
5,u
4,x
3,y
D(x),p(x)
1,u
D(y),p(y) ∞
2,x
D(z),p(z) ∞
4,y u y x w v z 2 1 3 5
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17. Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Resulting shortest-path tree from u: u y x w v z
Resulting forwarding table in u: v x y w z
(u,v)
(u,x)
destination
link
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18. Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
Oscillations possible:
e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic A D C B 1
1+e e
2+e
initially
… recompute
routing
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19. Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Resulting shortest-path tree from u: u y x w v z
Resulting forwarding table in u: v x y w z
(u,v)
(u,x)
destination
link
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20. Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Concept2 5 3 
Current Path Costs E C 3 1 F 2 2 6 1
Source
Node D 3 A 3 B
Done
Unseen
Horizon
Node Sets
Done
Already have least cost path to it
Horizon:
Reachable in 1 hop from node in Done
Unseen:
Cannot reach directly from node in Done
Label
d(v) = path cost
From s to v
Path
Keep track of last link in path
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21. Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Initially
Current Path Costs E C 3 1 F 2 2 6 1
Source
Node D 3 A 3 B
Horizon
Done
Unseen
No nodes done
Source in horizon
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22. Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Initially2 6 3 
Current Path Costs E C 3 1 F 2 2 6 1
Source
Node D 3 A 3 B
Done
Horizon
Unseen
d(v) to node A shown in red
Only consider links from done nodes
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23. Dijkstra’s Algorithm Select node v in horizon with minimum d(v) E C 2 3 5 6 1
Current Path Costs F 2 2 6 1
Source
Node  D 3 3 A 3 B
Done
Unseen
Horizon
Select node v in horizon with minimum d(v)
Add link used to add node to shortest path tree
Update d(v) information
routing and IP routing

24. Dijkstra’s Algorithm Repeat… 2 5 3  Current Path Costs Horizon E C F2 5 3 
Current Path Costs
Horizon E C 3 1 F 2 2 6 1
Source
Node D 3 A 3 B
Done
Unseen
Repeat…
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25. Dijkstra’s Algorithm Update d(v) values
Unseen 2 4 3  6
Current Path Costs E C 3 1 F 2 2 6 1
Source
Node D 3 A 3 B
Horizon
Done
Update d(v) values
Can cause addition of new nodes to horizon
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26. Dijkstra’s Algorithm Final tree shown in green 2 4 3 5 6 E C F Source2 4 3 5 6 E C 3 1 F 2 2 6 1
Source
Node D 3 A 3 B
Final tree shown in green
routing and IP routing

27. Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction
4.2 Virtual circuit and datagram networks
4.3 What’s inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
4.5 Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
4.6 Routing in the Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 Broadcast and multicast routing
routing and IP routing 27

28. Distance Vector Algorithm
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming)
Define
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
Then
dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) }
where min is taken over all neighbors v of x v
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29. Bellman-Ford example Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3u y x w v z 2 1 3 5
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
B-F equation says:
du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Node that achieves minimum is next
hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table
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30. Distance Vector Algorithm
Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
Node x knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
Node x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
Node x also maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors
For each neighbor v, x maintains Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]
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31. Distance vector algorithm (4)
Basic idea:
From time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate to neighbors
Asynchronous
When a node x receives new DV estimate from neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N
Under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the actual least cost dx(y)
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32. Distance Vector Algorithm (5)
Iterative, asynchronous: each local iteration caused by:
local link cost change
DV update message from neighbor
Distributed:
each node notifies neighbors only when its DV changes
neighbors then notify their neighbors if necessary
Each node:
wait for (change in local link cost or msg from neighbor)
recompute estimates
if DV to any dest has changed, notify neighbors
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33. z y x Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)} = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
node x table
x y z x y z ∞
from
cost to
cost to
x y z x 2 3
from y z
node y table
cost to x z 1 2 7 y
x y z x ∞ ∞ ∞ y
from z ∞ ∞ ∞
node z table
cost to
x y z x
∞ ∞ ∞
from y ∞ ∞ ∞ z 7 1
time
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34. z y x Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)} = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
node x table
x y z x y z ∞
from
cost to
cost to
cost to
x y z
x y z x x
from y
from y z z
node y table
cost to
cost to
cost to x z 1 2 7 y
x y z
x y z
x y z x ∞ ∞ x ∞ x y
from y
from
from y z z ∞ ∞ ∞ z
node z table
cost to
cost to
cost to
x y z
x y z
x y z x x x
∞ ∞ ∞
from y
from y
from y ∞ ∞ ∞ z z z 7 1
time
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35. Distance Vector: link cost changes
node detects local link cost change
updates routing info, recalculates distance vector
if DV changes, notify neighbors x z 1 4 50 y
At time t0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV,
and informs its neighbors.
“good
news
travels
fast”
At time t1, z receives the update from y and updates its table.
It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV.
At time t2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table.
y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any
message to z.
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36. Distance Vector: link cost changes
good news travels fast
bad news travels slow - “count to infinity” problem!
44 iterations before algorithm stabilizes: see text
Poisoned reverse:
If Z routes through Y to get to X :
Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z)
will this completely solve count to infinity problem? x z 1 4 50 y 60
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37. Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity
LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) msgs sent
DV: exchange between neighbors only
convergence time varies
Speed of Convergence
LS: O(n2) algorithm requires O(nE) msgs
may have oscillations
DV: convergence time varies
may be routing loops
count-to-infinity problem
Robustness: what happens if router malfunctions?
LS:
node can advertise incorrect link cost
each node computes only its own table
DV:
DV node can advertise incorrect path cost
each node’s table used by others
error propagate thru network
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38. Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction
4.2 Virtual circuit and datagram networks
4.3 What’s inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
4.5 Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
4.6 Routing in the Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 Broadcast and multicast routing
routing and IP routing 38

39. Hierarchical Routing scale: with 200 million destinations:
Our routing study thus far - idealization
all routers identical
network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: with 200 million destinations:
can’t store all dest’s in routing tables!
routing table exchange would swamp links!
administrative autonomy
internet = network of networks
each network admin may want to control routing in its own network
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40. Hierarchical Routing Gateway router
aggregate routers into regions, “autonomous systems” (AS)
routers in same AS run same routing protocol
“intra-AS” routing protocol
routers in different AS can run different intra-AS routing protocol
Gateway router
Direct link to router in another AS
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41. Interconnected ASes 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a
AS3
AS1
AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b
Intra-AS
Routing
algorithm
Inter-AS
Forwarding
table 3c
forwarding table configured by both intra- and inter-AS routing algorithm
intra-AS sets entries for internal dests
inter-AS & intra-As sets entries for external dests
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42. Inter-AS tasks
suppose router in AS1 receives datagram destined outside of AS1:
router should forward packet to gateway router, but which one?
AS1 must:
learn which dests are reachable through AS2, which through AS3
propagate this reachability info to all routers in AS1
Job of inter-AS routing! 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a
AS3
AS1
AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b 3c
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43. Example: Setting forwarding table in router 1d
suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c) but not via AS2.
inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all internal routers.
router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c.
installs forwarding table entry (x,I) … x 3c 3a 2c 3b 2a
AS3 2b 1c
AS2 1a 1b
AS1 1d
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44. Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x.
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol! … 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a
AS3
AS1
AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b 3c … x
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45. Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x.
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two routers.
Learn from inter-AS
protocol that subnet
x is reachable via
multiple gateways
Use routing info
from intra-AS
protocol to determine
costs of least-cost
paths to each
of the gateways
Hot potato routing:
Choose the gateway
that has the
smallest least cost
Determine from
forwarding table the
interface I that leads
to least-cost gateway.
Enter (x,I) in
forwarding table
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46. Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction
4.2 Virtual circuit and datagram networks
4.3 What’s inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
4.5 Routing algorithms
Link state
Distance Vector
Hierarchical routing
4.6 Routing in the Internet
RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 Broadcast and multicast routing
routing and IP routing
Network Layer
4-46 46

47. Intra-AS Routing also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
most common Intra-AS routing protocols:
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)
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48. Static routing-command
How to deployment static routing:
[Quidway] [undo] ip route-static ip-address { mask | masklen } { interface-type interface-name | nexthop-address } [ preference value ]
例如：
[Quidway] ip route-static
[Quidway] ip route-static
[Quidway] ip route-static Serial 2
注意：只有下一跳所属的的接口是点对点（PPP、HDLC）的接口时，才可以填写<interface-name>，否则必须填写<nexthop-address>。
routing and IP routing

49. Static routing— example
/16
Quidway B
Quidway A E0 S0 S0
Deployment on Quidway A
ip route-static
ip route-static
ip route-static s 0
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50. Static routing— default gateway
Quidway A
Quidway B S0 S0
Public Network
Private Network
Deployment on Quidway A：
ip route-static
Internet上大约99%的路由器上都存在一条缺省路由!
routing and IP routing

51. Routing table
example
因特网中的路由选择