1. Chapter 9 Collecting primary data through observation

2. Observation as a data collection method
‘Observation involves the systematic observation , recording, description analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour’
Saunders et al. (2009)

3. Types of observation The two main types
Participant observation – emphasises the discovery of meaning attached to actions (qualitative)
Structured observation – is concerned with frequency of actions
(quantitative)

5. Participant observation (1)
Definition
‘Where the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and actions of subjects, enabling them to not merely observe what is happening but also feeling it’
Adapted from Gill and Johnson (2002)

6. Choice of participant observer role
Determining factors
Purpose of the research and time available
Degree of suitability felt by the researcher
Organisational access
Ethical considerations

7. Data collection and analysis (3)
Points to consider
Threats to validity
The perspective of the subject - not the researcher
Advantages and disadvantages of participant observation are summarised in Table 9.1
Saunders et al. (2009)

8. Advantages
It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular social situation.
It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant social process.
It is particularly useful for researchers working within their own organization.
Some participant observation affords the opportunity for the researcher to the experience ‘for real’ the emotions of those who are being researched.
Virtually all data collected are useful.

9. Disadvantages It can be very time consuming.
It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researchers.
They can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher.
The closeness of the researcher to the situation being observed can lead to significant observer bias .
The participant observer role is a very demanding one, to which not all researchers will be suited
Access to organizations may be difficult.
Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.

10. Structured observation (1)
Points to consider
Structured observation is systematic and aims to establish straightforward facts
Structured observation was an important part of Mintzberg’s (1973) study of managerial work
Proliferation of the Internet potentially widens the scope of participant observation
Advantages and disadvantages of structured observation are summarised in Table 9.2
Saunders et al. (2009)

11. Structured observation (2)
Data collection and analysis
Choosing an ‘off the shelf’ coding schedule
Designing your own coding schedule
Combining both types of schedule
Use of simple (manual) or complex (computer) methods of analysis

12. Structured observation (3)
Threats to validity and reliability
Subject error
Time error
Observer effects and strategies to overcome this –
habituation and minimal interaction Robson (2002)

13. Chapter 10 Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews

14. Types of interview used in research
Research interviews
Definition
‘An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people’
Kahn and Cannell (1957)
Types of interview used in research
Semi-structured Structured
In-depth Group
Saunders et al. (2009)

15. Research purpose and strategy (1)
Forms of interview
Saunders et al. (2009)
Figure Forms of interview

16. Types of interview
Structured interviews: use questionnaire based on a predetermined and ‘standardized’ or identical set of questions and we refer to them as interviewer administered questionnaires.
Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview. This means that you may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organizational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. The order of questions also be varied depending on the flow of conversation.

17. Continued
On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations.
Unstructured interviews: are informal. You would use these to explore in-depth a general area in which you are interested . We therefore, refer to these as in-depth interviews. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.

18. Interview and type of research
In an exploratory research study, in-depth interviews can be very helpful to find out what is happening and to seek new insight. Semi stretchered interviews may be used in relation to an exploratory study.
In descriptive studies structured interviews can be used as a means to identify general patterns.
In an explanatory study, semi structured interviews can be used in order to understand the relationships between variables, such as those revealed from a descriptive study, structured interview may also be used in relation to an explanatory study, in statistical sense.

19. Research purpose and strategy (2)
Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories
Saunders et al. (2009)
Table Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories

20. Non-standardised (qualitative) interviews
Four key aspects
Purpose of the research
Significance of establishing personal contact
Nature of the data collection questions
Time required and completeness of process

21. Data quality (1) Issues to consider Reliability Forms of bias
Validity and generalisability

22. The importance of preparation – the 5 Ps
Data quality (2)
The importance of preparation – the 5 Ps
‘prior planning prevents poor performance’
Saunders et al. (2009)

23. Interview preparation (1)
Associated issues
Interviewer’s level of knowledge
Level of information supplied to interviewees
Creating an interview guide
Appropriateness of location

24. Interview preparation (2)
Associated issues
Researcher’s appearance – dress code
Shaping the interview - opening comments
Approach to questioning – clarity and reducing bias
Use of critical incident technique

25. Interview preparation (3)
Associated issues
Appropriate interviewer behaviour- verbal and non- verbal
Attentive listening skills and testing understanding
Approaches to data recording - notes and tape- recording
Cultural differences and bias

26. Interviewing competence
There are several areas where you need to develop and demonstrate competence in relation to conduct of semi structured and in-depth research interview . These areas are:
Opening the interview;
Using appropriate language;
Questioning;
Listening;
Testing and summarizing understanding;
Recording and dealing with difficult participants;
recording data.

27. Interview preparation (4)
Checklist Box 10.12
Complete the Checklist in Box 10.12
to help you prepare for your semi-structured or in-depth interview
Saunders et al. (2009)

29. Interviewing competence (1)
Approaches to questioning Open questions Probing questions Specific and closed questions

30. Open questions
The use of open question will allow participants to define and describe the situation or event.
An open is designed to encourage the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer and may be used to reveal attitudes or obtain facts. It encourage s the interviewee to reply as they wish.
An open question is likely to start with or include, one of the following words: ‘what’, or ‘how’, or ‘why’,.

31. Propping questions
Can be used to explore responses that are of significance to the research topic. They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction.

32. Specific and closed questions
These types of questions are simpler to those used in structured interviews. They can be used to obtain specific information or to confirm a fact or opinion.

33. Interviewing competence (2)
Advantages and disadvantages of audio- recording interviews
Saunders et al. (2009)
Table Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording the interview

34. Interviewing competence (3)
Other issues to consider
Dealing with difficult participants –Table 10.2
Managing resources – logistics and time
Obtaining participants’ permission for interview records (written and taped)

35. Interviewing competence (4)
Additional forms of interviews:
Group interviews
Focus groups
Telephone interviews
Internet and intra-net mediated interviews

36. Interviewing competence (5)
Forms of electronic interviews
Saunders et al. (2009)
Figure Forms of electronic interviews

37. Chapter 11 Collecting primary data using questionnaires

38. Use of questionnaires (1)
Definition of Questionnaires
Techniques of data collection in which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a predetermined order
Adapted from deVaus (2002)

39. Use of questionnaires (2)
When to use questionnaires
For explanatory or descriptive research
Linked with other methods in a multiple-methods research design
To collect responses from a large sample prior to quantitative analysis

40. Use of questionnaires (3)
Types of questionnaire
Saunders et al. (2009)
Figure Types of questionnaire

41. Types of questionnaire
The design of a questionnaire differs according to how it is administered and in particular, the amount of contact you have with respondents
Self-administered questionnaires are usually completed by respondents.
Such questionnaires are administered electronically using the internet [Internet-mediated questionnaires] or intranet [intranet-mediated questionnaires], posted to respondents who return them by post after completion [postal or mail questionnaire], or delivered by hand to each respondent and collected later [delivery and collection questionnaire].

42. Continued
Responses to interviewer-administered questionnaires are recorded by the interviewer on the basis of each respondent’s answers. Questionnaires administered using the telephone are known as telephone questionnaires.
The final category, structured interviews [sometimes known as interview schedules], refers to those questionnaires where interviewers physically meet respondents and ask the question face to face.
These differ from semi-structured and unstructured [in-depth] interviews [Section 10.2], as there is a defined schedule of questions, from which interviewers should not deviate.

43. Choice of questionnaire
Related factors
Characteristics of the respondents and access
Respondents answers not being contaminated or distorted
Size of sample required for analysis
Type and number of questions required
Available resources including use of computer software

44. Data collection Key factors Precisely defined questions
Representative and accurate sampling
An understanding of the organisational context
Relationships between variables – dependent, independent and extraneous
Types of variable

45. Ensuring essential data are collected
Data requirements table
Saunders et al. (2009)
Table Data requirements table

46. Designing the questionnaire (1)
Stages that must occur if a question is to be valid and reliable
Source: developed from Foddy (1994)
Figure Stages that must occur if a question is to be valid and reliable

47. Designing the questionnaire 2
Testing for reliability- the 3 stage process
Test re-test
Internal consistency
Alternative form
Mitchell (1996)

48. Examples of question types (1)
Open questions
Please list up to three things you like about your job
1…………………………………………
2…………………………………………
3…………………………………………
Saunders et al. (2009)

49. Examples of question types (2)
List questions
What is your religion?
Please tick  the appropriate box
Buddhist  None 
Christian  Other 
Hindu 
Jewish 
Muslim 
Sikh 
Saunders et al. (2009)

50. Examples of question types (3)
Category questions
8 How often do you visit the shopping centre?
Interviewer: listen to the respondent’s answer and tick  as appropriate
 First visit
 Once a week
 Less than fortnightly to once a month
 2 or more times a week
Less than once a week to fortnightly
Less often
Saunders et al. (2009)

51. Examples of question types (4)
Ranking questions
Please number each of the factors listed below in order of importance to you in choosing a new car. Number the most important 1, the next 2 and so on. If a factor has no importance at all, please leave blank.
Factor Importance
Carbon dioxide emissions [ ]
Boot size [ ]
Depreciation [ ]
Price [ ]
Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

52. Examples of question types (5)
Rating questions
10 For the following statement please tick the box that matches your view most closely
Agree Tend to agree Tend to disagree Disagree
I feel employees’    
views have
influenced the
decisions taken
by management
Saunders et al. (2009)

53. Examples of question types (6)
Quantity questions
What is your year of birth?
(For example, for 1988 write: )
Saunders et al. (2009) 1 9 1 9 8 8

55. Designing individual questions (1)
Other considerations
Adopting or adapting existing questions – remember to check copyright
Question wording
Translating questions into other languages
Question coding

56. Designing individual questions (2)
Checklist Box 11.11
Complete the Checklist in Box 11.11
to help you with the wording of your questions
Saunders et al. (2009)

57. Constructing the questionnaire
Main considerations
Order and flow of questions
Questionnaire layout

58. Explaining the purpose and testing
Key points
The covering letter
Introducing and closing the questionnaire
Pilot testing and assessing validity

59. Administering the questionnaire
Points to consider
Internet and intranet-mediated responses
Postal questionnaires
Delivery and Collection
Telephone questionnaires
Structured interviews

61. Chapter 13 Analysing qualitative data

62. Analysing qualitative data (1)
Definition
‘Qualitative data refers to all non-numeric data or data that have not been quantified and can be a product of all research strategies’
Saunders et al. (2009)

63. Analysing qualitative data (2)
Distinctions between quantitative and qualitative data
Saunders et al. (2009)
Table Distinctions between quantitative and qualitative data

64. Preparing data for analysis
Key issues
Transcribing qualitative data
Using electronic textual data including scanned documents
The interactive nature of the process

65. Approaches to qualitative analysis
Main approaches
The deductive approach
The inductive approach

66. Types of qualitative analysis process (1)
Main types
Summarising (condensation) of meanings
Categorising (grouping) of meanings
Structuring (ordering of meanings using narrative
Saunders et al. (2009)

67. Types of qualitative analysis process (2)
Dimensions of qualitative analysis
Saunders et al. (2009)
Figure Dimensions of qualitative analysis

68. Categorising data Points to consider Deriving categories
‘Unitising’ data
Recognising relationships and developing categories
Developing testable propositions
Qualifying your qualitative data

69. Inductively based analytical procedures
Procedures applicable to qualitative analysis
Data display and analysis
Template analysis
Analytic induction
Grounded theory – open, axial and selected coding
Discourse analysis
Narrative analysis

70. Discourse analysis
A three-dimensional analytical framework for critical discourse analysis
Saunders et al. (2009)
Figure A three-dimensional analytical framework for critical discourse analysis

71. Using CAQDAS for qualitative analysis (1)
Summary of functions
Structure of work
Closeness to data and interactivity
Explore the data
Code and retrieve
Project management and data organisation
Searching and interrogating
Writing memos, comments and note
Output
Lewins and Silver (2006)

72. Using CAQDAS for qualitative analysis (2)
Checklist Box 13.17
Complete the Checklist in Box 13.17
to help you choose a CAQDAS package
NVİVO or Atlas
Saunders et al. (2009)

75. Chapter 14 Writing and presenting your project report

76. Getting started with writing
Practical hints
Create time for your writing
Write when your mind is fresh
Find a regular writing place
Set goals and achieve them
Use word processing
Generate a plan for the report
Finish each writing session on a high point
Get friends to read and comment on your work

77. Structuring your research report
Suggested structure
Abstract
Introduction
Literature review
Method
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
References
Appendices

78. Writing for different audiences
Key differences between an ‘Academic’ report
and a ‘Consultancy’ or ‘Management’ report
The academic report:
Tends to be longer
Will be marked and graded
Will contain contextual descriptions
The consultancy report:
Has less focus on the development of theory
Contains recommendations relating to the organisation’s business

79. Four short paragraphs that answer the questions:
Report structure (1)
The abstract
Four short paragraphs that answer the questions:
What were my research questions and why were they important?
How did I go about answering the research questions?
What did I find out in response to these questions?
What conclusions can be drawn?
Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

80. Literature review - purpose
Report structure (2)
Introduction - include
The research questions(s) and a clear statement of research objectives
Brief background and a guide to the storyline
Literature review - purpose
To set your study in the wider context
To show how your study supplements existing work

81. Report structure (3) Checklist Box 14.5
Complete the Checklist in Box 14.5
for points to include in your method chapter
Developed from Robson (2002)

82. Results chapter(s) - purpose Discussion chapter- purpose
Report structure (4)
Results chapter(s) - purpose
To report the facts your research discovered
To support the facts with quotes from participants
Discussion chapter- purpose
To interpret results and relate the findings to the original research goals and objectives
To indicate implications of the research

83. Report structure (5)
Using a matrix in the planning of the content for the results and conclusions chapters
Saunders et al. (2009)
Figure Using a matrix in the planning of the content for the results and conclusions chapters

84. Conclusion chapter – purpose
Report structure (6)
Conclusion chapter – purpose
To answer the research question(s)
To meet the research objectives
To consider the findings
To present any contributions to the topic displayed in the literature
To reflect on any implications for future research

85. Report structure (7) References Appendices
Use a convention that is accepted by your university (e.g. Harvard, APA)
Cite all sources referred to in the text
Check all citations to prevent plagiarism
Appendices
Include only essential supporting material
Include copies of interview schedules
Keep appendices to a minimum

86. Organising the report content (2)
Main points to consider
Choosing the title
Telling a clear story
Helping the reader by-
Dividing your work
Previewing and summarising chapters
Using suitable tables and graphics
Writing in a suitable style

87. Writing style Key points: Clarity and simplicity – avoid jargon
Checking grammar and spelling
Preserving anonymity
Regularly revising each draft

88. Evaluating the first draft
Checklist Box 14.11
Complete the Checklist in Box 14.11
to help you evaluate the first draft
Saunders et al. (2009)

89. Oral presentation Three key stages: Planning and preparation
Use of visual aids
Presenting