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Chapter 9 Collecting primary data through observation

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1 Chapter 9 Collecting primary data through observation

2 Observation as a data collection method
‘Observation involves the systematic observation , recording, description analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour’ Saunders et al. (2009)

3 Types of observation The two main types
Participant observation – emphasises the discovery of meaning attached to actions (qualitative) Structured observation – is concerned with frequency of actions (quantitative)

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5 Participant observation (1)
Definition ‘Where the researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and actions of subjects, enabling them to not merely observe what is happening but also feeling it’ Adapted from Gill and Johnson (2002)

6 Choice of participant observer role
Determining factors Purpose of the research and time available Degree of suitability felt by the researcher Organisational access Ethical considerations

7 Data collection and analysis (3)
Points to consider Threats to validity The perspective of the subject - not the researcher Advantages and disadvantages of participant observation are summarised in Table 9.1 Saunders et al. (2009)

8 Advantages It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular social situation. It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant social process. It is particularly useful for researchers working within their own organization. Some participant observation affords the opportunity for the researcher to the experience ‘for real’ the emotions of those who are being researched. Virtually all data collected are useful.

9 Disadvantages It can be very time consuming.
It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researchers. They can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher. The closeness of the researcher to the situation being observed can lead to significant observer bias . The participant observer role is a very demanding one, to which not all researchers will be suited Access to organizations may be difficult. Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.

10 Structured observation (1)
Points to consider Structured observation is systematic and aims to establish straightforward facts Structured observation was an important part of Mintzberg’s (1973) study of managerial work Proliferation of the Internet potentially widens the scope of participant observation Advantages and disadvantages of structured observation are summarised in Table 9.2 Saunders et al. (2009)

11 Structured observation (2)
Data collection and analysis Choosing an ‘off the shelf’ coding schedule Designing your own coding schedule Combining both types of schedule Use of simple (manual) or complex (computer) methods of analysis

12 Structured observation (3)
Threats to validity and reliability Subject error Time error Observer effects and strategies to overcome this – habituation and minimal interaction Robson (2002)

13 Chapter 10 Collecting primary data using semi-structured, in-depth and group interviews

14 Types of interview used in research
Research interviews Definition ‘An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people’ Kahn and Cannell (1957) Types of interview used in research Semi-structured Structured In-depth Group Saunders et al. (2009)

15 Research purpose and strategy (1)
Forms of interview Saunders et al. (2009) Figure Forms of interview

16 Types of interview Structured interviews: use questionnaire based on a predetermined and ‘standardized’ or identical set of questions and we refer to them as interviewer administered questionnaires. Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview. This means that you may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organizational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. The order of questions also be varied depending on the flow of conversation.

17 Continued On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations. Unstructured interviews: are informal. You would use these to explore in-depth a general area in which you are interested . We therefore, refer to these as in-depth interviews. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.

18 Interview and type of research
In an exploratory research study, in-depth interviews can be very helpful to find out what is happening and to seek new insight. Semi stretchered interviews may be used in relation to an exploratory study. In descriptive studies structured interviews can be used as a means to identify general patterns. In an explanatory study, semi structured interviews can be used in order to understand the relationships between variables, such as those revealed from a descriptive study, structured interview may also be used in relation to an explanatory study, in statistical sense.

19 Research purpose and strategy (2)
Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories Saunders et al. (2009) Table Uses of different types of interview in each of the main research categories

20 Non-standardised (qualitative) interviews
Four key aspects Purpose of the research Significance of establishing personal contact Nature of the data collection questions Time required and completeness of process

21 Data quality (1) Issues to consider Reliability Forms of bias
Validity and generalisability

22 The importance of preparation – the 5 Ps
Data quality (2) The importance of preparation – the 5 Ps ‘prior planning prevents poor performance’ Saunders et al. (2009)

23 Interview preparation (1)
Associated issues Interviewer’s level of knowledge Level of information supplied to interviewees Creating an interview guide Appropriateness of location

24 Interview preparation (2)
Associated issues Researcher’s appearance – dress code Shaping the interview - opening comments Approach to questioning – clarity and reducing bias Use of critical incident technique

25 Interview preparation (3)
Associated issues Appropriate interviewer behaviour- verbal and non- verbal Attentive listening skills and testing understanding Approaches to data recording - notes and tape- recording Cultural differences and bias

26 Interviewing competence
There are several areas where you need to develop and demonstrate competence in relation to conduct of semi structured and in-depth research interview . These areas are: Opening the interview; Using appropriate language; Questioning; Listening; Testing and summarizing understanding; Recording and dealing with difficult participants; recording data.

27 Interview preparation (4)
Checklist Box 10.12 Complete the Checklist in Box 10.12 to help you prepare for your semi-structured or in-depth interview Saunders et al. (2009)

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29 Interviewing competence (1)
Approaches to questioning Open questions Probing questions Specific and closed questions

30 Open questions The use of open question will allow participants to define and describe the situation or event. An open is designed to encourage the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer and may be used to reveal attitudes or obtain facts. It encourage s the interviewee to reply as they wish. An open question is likely to start with or include, one of the following words: ‘what’, or ‘how’, or ‘why’,.

31 Propping questions Can be used to explore responses that are of significance to the research topic. They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction.

32 Specific and closed questions
These types of questions are simpler to those used in structured interviews. They can be used to obtain specific information or to confirm a fact or opinion.

33 Interviewing competence (2)
Advantages and disadvantages of audio- recording interviews Saunders et al. (2009) Table Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording the interview

34 Interviewing competence (3)
Other issues to consider Dealing with difficult participants –Table 10.2 Managing resources – logistics and time Obtaining participants’ permission for interview records (written and taped)

35 Interviewing competence (4)
Additional forms of interviews: Group interviews Focus groups Telephone interviews Internet and intra-net mediated interviews

36 Interviewing competence (5)
Forms of electronic interviews Saunders et al. (2009) Figure Forms of electronic interviews

37 Chapter 11 Collecting primary data using questionnaires

38 Use of questionnaires (1)
Definition of Questionnaires Techniques of data collection in which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a predetermined order Adapted from deVaus (2002)

39 Use of questionnaires (2)
When to use questionnaires For explanatory or descriptive research Linked with other methods in a multiple-methods research design To collect responses from a large sample prior to quantitative analysis

40 Use of questionnaires (3)
Types of questionnaire Saunders et al. (2009) Figure Types of questionnaire

41 Types of questionnaire
The design of a questionnaire differs according to how it is administered and in particular, the amount of contact you have with respondents Self-administered questionnaires are usually completed by respondents. Such questionnaires are administered electronically using the internet [Internet-mediated questionnaires] or intranet [intranet-mediated questionnaires], posted to respondents who return them by post after completion [postal or mail questionnaire], or delivered by hand to each respondent and collected later [delivery and collection questionnaire].

42 Continued Responses to interviewer-administered questionnaires are recorded by the interviewer on the basis of each respondent’s answers. Questionnaires administered using the telephone are known as telephone questionnaires. The final category, structured interviews [sometimes known as interview schedules], refers to those questionnaires where interviewers physically meet respondents and ask the question face to face. These differ from semi-structured and unstructured [in-depth] interviews [Section 10.2], as there is a defined schedule of questions, from which interviewers should not deviate.

43 Choice of questionnaire
Related factors Characteristics of the respondents and access Respondents answers not being contaminated or distorted Size of sample required for analysis Type and number of questions required Available resources including use of computer software

44 Data collection Key factors Precisely defined questions
Representative and accurate sampling An understanding of the organisational context Relationships between variables – dependent, independent and extraneous Types of variable

45 Ensuring essential data are collected
Data requirements table Saunders et al. (2009) Table Data requirements table

46 Designing the questionnaire (1)
Stages that must occur if a question is to be valid and reliable Source: developed from Foddy (1994) Figure Stages that must occur if a question is to be valid and reliable

47 Designing the questionnaire 2
Testing for reliability- the 3 stage process Test re-test Internal consistency Alternative form Mitchell (1996)

48 Examples of question types (1)
Open questions Please list up to three things you like about your job 1………………………………………… 2………………………………………… 3………………………………………… Saunders et al. (2009)

49 Examples of question types (2)
List questions What is your religion? Please tick  the appropriate box Buddhist  None  Christian  Other  Hindu  Jewish  Muslim  Sikh  Saunders et al. (2009)

50 Examples of question types (3)
Category questions 8 How often do you visit the shopping centre? Interviewer: listen to the respondent’s answer and tick  as appropriate  First visit  Once a week  Less than fortnightly to once a month  2 or more times a week Less than once a week to fortnightly Less often Saunders et al. (2009)

51 Examples of question types (4)
Ranking questions Please number each of the factors listed below in order of importance to you in choosing a new car. Number the most important 1, the next 2 and so on. If a factor has no importance at all, please leave blank. Factor Importance Carbon dioxide emissions [ ] Boot size [ ] Depreciation [ ] Price [ ] Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

52 Examples of question types (5)
Rating questions 10 For the following statement please tick the box that matches your view most closely Agree Tend to agree Tend to disagree Disagree I feel employees’     views have influenced the decisions taken by management Saunders et al. (2009)

53 Examples of question types (6)
Quantity questions What is your year of birth? (For example, for 1988 write: ) Saunders et al. (2009) 1 9 1 9 8 8

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55 Designing individual questions (1)
Other considerations Adopting or adapting existing questions – remember to check copyright Question wording Translating questions into other languages Question coding

56 Designing individual questions (2)
Checklist Box 11.11 Complete the Checklist in Box 11.11 to help you with the wording of your questions Saunders et al. (2009)

57 Constructing the questionnaire
Main considerations Order and flow of questions Questionnaire layout

58 Explaining the purpose and testing
Key points The covering letter Introducing and closing the questionnaire Pilot testing and assessing validity

59 Administering the questionnaire
Points to consider Internet and intranet-mediated responses Postal questionnaires Delivery and Collection Telephone questionnaires Structured interviews

60

61 Chapter 13 Analysing qualitative data

62 Analysing qualitative data (1)
Definition ‘Qualitative data refers to all non-numeric data or data that have not been quantified and can be a product of all research strategies’ Saunders et al. (2009)

63 Analysing qualitative data (2)
Distinctions between quantitative and qualitative data Saunders et al. (2009) Table Distinctions between quantitative and qualitative data

64 Preparing data for analysis
Key issues Transcribing qualitative data Using electronic textual data including scanned documents The interactive nature of the process

65 Approaches to qualitative analysis
Main approaches The deductive approach The inductive approach

66 Types of qualitative analysis process (1)
Main types Summarising (condensation) of meanings Categorising (grouping) of meanings Structuring (ordering of meanings using narrative Saunders et al. (2009)

67 Types of qualitative analysis process (2)
Dimensions of qualitative analysis Saunders et al. (2009) Figure Dimensions of qualitative analysis

68 Categorising data Points to consider Deriving categories
‘Unitising’ data Recognising relationships and developing categories Developing testable propositions Qualifying your qualitative data

69 Inductively based analytical procedures
Procedures applicable to qualitative analysis Data display and analysis Template analysis Analytic induction Grounded theory – open, axial and selected coding Discourse analysis Narrative analysis

70 Discourse analysis A three-dimensional analytical framework for critical discourse analysis Saunders et al. (2009) Figure A three-dimensional analytical framework for critical discourse analysis

71 Using CAQDAS for qualitative analysis (1)
Summary of functions Structure of work Closeness to data and interactivity Explore the data Code and retrieve Project management and data organisation Searching and interrogating Writing memos, comments and note Output Lewins and Silver (2006)

72 Using CAQDAS for qualitative analysis (2)
Checklist Box 13.17 Complete the Checklist in Box 13.17 to help you choose a CAQDAS package NVİVO or Atlas Saunders et al. (2009)

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75 Chapter 14 Writing and presenting your project report

76 Getting started with writing
Practical hints Create time for your writing Write when your mind is fresh Find a regular writing place Set goals and achieve them Use word processing Generate a plan for the report Finish each writing session on a high point Get friends to read and comment on your work

77 Structuring your research report
Suggested structure Abstract Introduction Literature review Method Results Discussion Conclusions References Appendices

78 Writing for different audiences
Key differences between an ‘Academic’ report and a ‘Consultancy’ or ‘Management’ report The academic report: Tends to be longer Will be marked and graded Will contain contextual descriptions The consultancy report: Has less focus on the development of theory Contains recommendations relating to the organisation’s business

79 Four short paragraphs that answer the questions:
Report structure (1) The abstract Four short paragraphs that answer the questions: What were my research questions and why were they important? How did I go about answering the research questions? What did I find out in response to these questions? What conclusions can be drawn? Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

80 Literature review - purpose
Report structure (2) Introduction - include The research questions(s) and a clear statement of research objectives Brief background and a guide to the storyline Literature review - purpose To set your study in the wider context To show how your study supplements existing work

81 Report structure (3) Checklist Box 14.5
Complete the Checklist in Box 14.5 for points to include in your method chapter Developed from Robson (2002)

82 Results chapter(s) - purpose Discussion chapter- purpose
Report structure (4) Results chapter(s) - purpose To report the facts your research discovered To support the facts with quotes from participants Discussion chapter- purpose To interpret results and relate the findings to the original research goals and objectives To indicate implications of the research

83 Report structure (5) Using a matrix in the planning of the content for the results and conclusions chapters Saunders et al. (2009) Figure Using a matrix in the planning of the content for the results and conclusions chapters

84 Conclusion chapter – purpose
Report structure (6) Conclusion chapter – purpose To answer the research question(s) To meet the research objectives To consider the findings To present any contributions to the topic displayed in the literature To reflect on any implications for future research

85 Report structure (7) References Appendices
Use a convention that is accepted by your university (e.g. Harvard, APA) Cite all sources referred to in the text Check all citations to prevent plagiarism Appendices Include only essential supporting material Include copies of interview schedules Keep appendices to a minimum

86 Organising the report content (2)
Main points to consider Choosing the title Telling a clear story Helping the reader by- Dividing your work Previewing and summarising chapters Using suitable tables and graphics Writing in a suitable style

87 Writing style Key points: Clarity and simplicity – avoid jargon
Checking grammar and spelling Preserving anonymity Regularly revising each draft

88 Evaluating the first draft
Checklist Box 14.11 Complete the Checklist in Box 14.11 to help you evaluate the first draft Saunders et al. (2009)

89 Oral presentation Three key stages: Planning and preparation
Use of visual aids Presenting


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