1. Attachment: An enduring emotional tie that unites one person to another, over time and across space

2. Attachment Behaviors:
Behaviors that function to bring the infant/child physically closer to the caregiver
Exs: crying, following, clinging

3. Why is parent-child attachment important?
First relationship that infants experience
May serve as a model for other relationships
May affect the development of self-concept

4. Individual Differences in Attachment Security
Infancy: Strange Situation
Mother and infant in laboratory playroom
Stranger enters, talks to mothers, engages infant
Mother leaves (stranger stays)
Mother returns (stranger leaves)
Mother leaves (baby alone)
Stranger returns
Mother returns

5. Secure (B)
About 60-65% of American middle-class samples
May or may not be distressed by separation
Respond positively to parent’s return
If distressed by separation, easily comforted by parent and able to return to play (parent = secure base)

6. Insecure-Avoidant (A)
15-20% of American middle-class samples
Usually not distressed by separation from parent
Avoid the parent during reunion (to different degrees)

7. Insecure-Resistant or Ambivalent (C)
10-15% of American middle-class samples
Usually distressed by separation
Show a combination of angry, resistant behavior and proximity-seeking behavior during reunion with parent
Have difficulty being comforted by parent and returning to play

8. Insecure-Disorganized (D)
10-15% of American middle-class samples
More common in infants who have been maltreated
Infants’ behavior does not reflect an organized strategy for dealing with the stress of separation
Contradictory behaviors
Expressions of fear or disorientation when caregiver returns

9. Influences on Infant Attachment Security
According to attachment theory, the major influence is parental behavior (especially sensitivity)
Sensitivity: Consistent, prompt, and appropriate responses to infant signals

10. Expectations form the basis of an internal working model
Infants develop expectations about how caregivers are likely to respond to their signals
Expectations form the basis of an internal working model
IWM: Expectations about the nature of relationships and beliefs about the self

11. Expectations result from the quality of mother-infant interaction:
Sensitive Care: Infants expect caregiver to be available and responsive
Insensitive Care: Infants expect caregiver to be unresponsive/inconsistent or rejecting

12. Infants’ behavior in the Strange Situation reflects their expectations (early IWM)
Secure infants expect caregiver to be responsive
Insecure infants expect caregiver to be unresponsive/inconsistent or rejecting

13. Evidence for Parental Behavior as the Major Influence on Infant Attachment Security:
Most studies use correlational designs
Parental sensitivity is associated with infant attachment security, but the average association is not strong
Ex: A meta-analysis by DeWolff & van IJzendoorn (1997) found an overall effect size of r(1,097) =.24

14. N = 100 mother-infants dyads
van den Boom (1994)
Designed a parenting intervention for low SES families with irritable infants
Experimental design
N = 100 mother-infants dyads
Observed at 6, 9, and 12 months

15. Dyads were randomly assigned to the intervention and control groups
Irritability assessed neonatally (10 and 15 days post-birth) using a structured observation (NBAS)
Dyads were randomly assigned to the intervention and control groups
Three post-treatment assessments (two immediate and one delayed)
Half the participants in each group received a pre-treatment assessment

16. Pretreatment and Immediate Posttreatment Assessments (6 Months, 9 months)
Structured observation (free play) used to code infant exploratory behaviors
Naturalistic observation used to code mother and infant interactive behaviors
Questionnaire assessing stressful life events

17. Delayed Posttreatment Assessment (12 months)
Strange Situation
Intervention began 3 weeks after the pretreatment assessments
3 sessions between 6 and 9 months
Focused on improving maternal sensitivity/responsiveness to infant signals

18. Results:
Mothers in the intervention group became more responsive, stimulating, visually attentive, and controlling between 6 and 9 months relative to mothers in the control group
Infants in the intervention group became more sociable, more self-soothing, and engaged in greater (and more complex) exploration between 6 and 9 months relative to infants in the control group

19. Infants in the intervention group were more likely to be securely attached at 12 months relative to infants in the control group (62% versus 28%)

20. Temperament and Attachment Security
Some studies find that insecure infants are higher in distress during the first year of life
Difficult to know if this reflects temperament or parental behavior
In general, temperament is not strongly related to attachment security

21. Attachment and Later Development
A secure attachment in infancy is related to:
More positive interactions with parents in the second year of life
More positive relationships with others (e.g., day care teachers, peers) when children are toddlers and preschoolers

22. Infant attachment security is not strongly related to the quality of older children’s relationships (in most studies)

23. Why does infant attachment security predict later behavior (at least short-term)?

24. Attachment Theory Perspective:
Attachment security reflects infants’ internal working models

25. IWM generalizes to new relationships
Children with secure attachments:
Expect others to respond positively to them
Children with insecure attachments:
Expect others to respond negatively to them (e.g., by ignoring or rejecting them)

26. IWMs tend to be self-perpetuating
Children behave in ways that elicit certain responses from others
Others’ responses confirm children’s internal working models

27. Continuity of Care Perspective:
When attachment security is related to later adjustment, it is because parental behavior has remained stable over time
NOT because of an IWM that generalizes to new relationships and is self-perpetuating

28. Both attachment theory and the continuity-of-care perspective hold that early experience and current experiences can both influence children’s adjustment

29. However, attachment theorists (e. g
However, attachment theorists (e.g., Sroufe) have argued that early experience may hold special significance because later experiences are “filtered” through early experience (the initial IWM)
Researchers emphasizing continuity-of-care (e.g., M. Lamb) tend to weight current experiences more heavily than early experiences

30. Issues/Challenges/Ideas (Thompson, 2000)
Stability of attachment security varies widely and so do relations between attachment security and later adjustment

31. Why?
Attachment theorists: Changes in parental sensitivity (e.g., due to family stressors, changes, etc.) affect attachment security and later adjustment
But limited and inconsistent evidence linking attachment instability to changes in family circumstances or parental behavior
Some data indicate that when parental sensitivity changes, early attachment security does not predict children’s later adjustment

32. The development of internal working models is not well-understood
To the extent that IWMS change, early attachment security may not predict later adjustment
As children’s cognitive capacities expand, IWMS likely become more complex as well
In addition to parental sensitivity, parent-child conversations about the child’s experiences may influence IWM development

33. The attachment relationship is only one component of the parent-child relationship
Parental sensitivity may be particularly relevant to attachment security, but other aspects of parental behavior may be equally important for children’s adjustment
e.g., parental control in the face of children’s emerging autonomy