1. Section 1: Memory Classifications and Processes
Chapter 7: Memory
Section 1: Memory Classifications and Processes

2. Memory Classifications and Processes
Memory can be classed as explicit or implicit. Two main types of explicit memory are episodic and semantic.
Memory of sensory input involves three distinct functions: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

3. Three Kinds of Memory
Memory is the process by which we recollect prior experiences and information and skills learned in the past.
There are three different kinds of memory:
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Implicit Memory

4. Episodic Memory Episodic memory is memory of a specific event.
An example of an episodic memory is when you remember what you ate for dinner last night.
A flashbulb memory is a memory of an important and intense event.
Flashbulb memories happen for several reasons:
-distinctness of the memories
-how often we think of them, especially positive ones
-they leave an impression and are connected to other events that are important to us
Examples of flashbulb memory: the memory of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the assassination of John F. Kennedy.

5. Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is the memory of facts, words, and concepts.
An example might be we know George Washington was the first president, but we don’t necessarily remember when we acquired it.
Episodic and semantic memories are both examples of explicit memory, which is a memory of specific information.
Things that are explicit are clear, or clearly stated or explained.

6. Implicit Memory
Implicit memory is memory of things that are implied, or not clearly stated.
Implicit memory includes practiced skills and learned habits.
Skills learned often stay with people for a lifetime, even if they do not use them very often.
Examples: riding a bicycle, skipping rope, playing a musical instrument

7. Three Major Processes of Memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

8. Encoding
The translation of information into a form in which it can be used is called encoding.
Encoding is the first stage of processing information.
Think of your brain as a hard drive: if you were to look at your memories through a microscope, they wouldn’t make sense; they would be translated into an unfamiliar form of data (like a computer code , etc.)

9. What kind of code do you use?
Look at the following string of letters for 30 seconds and memorize as much of it as you can. We will revisit this memorization practice in a few slides.
OTTFFSSENT

10. Visual and Acoustic Codes
One type of code is visual.
People use visual codes when they form a mental picture.
Another type of code is acoustic.
People use acoustic codes when they use sound.
For example, if you tried to memorize the previous set of letters by saying them, either silently or aloud, you are using acoustic coding.

11. Semantic Codes Another type of code is semantic.
A semantic code represents information in terms of its meaning.
The word semantic means “relating to meaning”, so if you noticed the last four letters of the previous set of letters spelled a word, you may have used semantic coding.
What you may not have realized when you attempted to memorize the set of letters is that the letters OTTFFSSENT stand for the first letter of the series of numbers from one (O) through ten (T). If you had known this in the first place, remembering the letters would have been much easier.

13. Storage Storage is the maintenance of encoded information.
It is the second process of memory.
Like a computer, where we must choose where to save a file so we are able to find it later, we also use various strategies to store our own memories.
These three strategies of storage are: maintenance rehearsal, elaborate rehearsal, and organizational systems.

14. Maintenance Rehearsal
Mechanical or rote repetition of information in order to keep from forgetting it is called maintenance rehearsal.
The more time spent on it, the longer the information will be remembered.
It does not connect information to past learning and is therefore a poor way to put information in permanent storage. It is also called “surface processing”.
Actors do well with this type of rehearsal: they simply remember their lines without having to connect it to anything in particular.

15. Elaborative Rehearsal
A more effective way to remember new information is to relate it to information you already know.
This method is called elaborative rehearsal.
It is widely used in education.
“Deep processing” is used in elaborative rehearsal, which means many people remember new information by relating it to information you already know.

16. Organizational Systems
Stored memories become organized and arranged in the mind for future use.
In some ways, the mind is like a storehouse of files and file cabinets in which you store what you learn and what you need to remember.
Your memory organizes information into classes according to common features.
For example, you may use your main American history mental file with George Washington in it, and then add a subfolder of other presidents.
Filing Errors
Our ability to remember is subject to error.
Errors can occur because we file information incorrectly.

17. Retrieval
Retrieval consists of locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought.
Retrieval is the third stage of processing information.
Retrieving information stored in our memory is like retrieving information stored in a computer.
Do you remember the list of letters discussed earlier in the lesson? What were they?
Three different strategies for retrieval are: context-dependent memory, state-dependent memory, and tip of the tongue.

18. Context-Dependent Memory
Context-dependent memories are information that is more easily retrieved in the context or situation in which it was encoded and stored.
Such memories are dependent on the place where they were encoded and stored.
Examples might be a place that brings back memories, like visiting your old neighborhood or your elementary school.
One study in this type of memory found that students did better on tests when they studied in the room where the test was given.
Sometimes police ask witnesses to recall a scene of a crime with as much detail as possible, or they take a witness back to the scene of the crime in hopes of recalling certain memories.

19. State-Dependent Memory
Memories that are retrieved because the mood in which they were originally encoded is recreated are called state-dependent memories.
Memory is better when people are in the same mood as when the information was acquired.
For instance, feelings of happiness tend to bring back other times when we were happy.
Psychologist Gordon Bower’s experiments found that mood influences memory.

20. On the Tip of the Tongue
Trying to retrieve memories that are not very well organized or are incomplete can be highly frustrating.
Sometimes we are so close to retrieving the information that it seems as though the information is on the “tip of the tongue.”
Psychologists call this phenomenon the feeling-of-knowing experience.
We often try to retrieve memories that are on the tip of our tongue by using either acoustic or semantic cues: “I can’t remember her name, but it starts with an M. Mary? Maria? Something like that.”

22. Blog Assignment
Tell about a time when you’ve had a flashbulb memory. What event do you recall? What do you remember? (Don’t forget small details, like sensory memories!) What kinds of feelings (anger, happiness, sadness) were caused by this memory? How did the event leave an impression on you?