1. Cultural Universals
Cultural universals are customs and practices that occur across all societies. They include:
Appearance
(eg. bodily adornment, hairstyles)
Activities
(eg. sports, dancing, games, interaction)
Social Institutions
(eg. family, law, religion)
Customary Practices
(eg. cooking, folklore, gift giving, hospitality)

2. Components of Culture
All cultures have 4 common (non-material) components of culture. These contribute to both harmony and conflict in a society. They are:
Symbols
Language
Values
Norms

3. Symbols
Symbols – anything that meaningfully represents something else (eg. wedding rings, flags, peace sign)
Culture can’t exist without symbols; they help us communicate ideas such as love and patriotism
However, sometimes symbols will be interpreted differently by different cultures
Examples:
In the Western world, purity is symbolized by the colour white For Indo-Canadians, however, purity is symbolized by the colour green.
To most people, the swastika represents hatred and intolerance. To White Supremacists, however, it represents goodness and love.
Symbols can also affect our thoughts about gender, race and ethnicity

4. Symbols
Symbols can also affect our thoughts about gender, race and ethnicity
Examples:
The colour of clothing has symbolic meanings for male and female. Babies are almost invariably dressed according to whether they are boys (blue or red) or girls (pink or yellow).
Black and white are not the true colours of peoples’ skin, but we nevertheless make references to people at a racial level by using these terms. When we think of our thought-associations with these colours, ‘black’ is often viewed negatively while ‘white’ is viewed positively. Why don’t we say ‘pinkish-tan’ or ‘golden-brown’?

5. Language
Language – a set of symbols that express ideas and enable people to think and communicate with one another (eg. Verbal [spoken], non-verbal [written, gestured])
Language creates visual images in our heads
Language and Social Reality:
Does language communicate reality or does it create reality?
Examples:
When we use the terms pro-life or pro-choice, are we expressing reality as it is or are we creating it?
Some Aboriginal languages do not have personal pronouns for gender (ie. he / she). How would their use (or lack of use) of these terms shape their reality?

6. Language Language and Gender Language, Race and Ethnicity
How does our language reflect our cultural assumptions about gender?
Examples:
Gender-specific references to occupations (see p. 76). eg. mankind or chairman
Language, Race and Ethnicity
How does our language reinforce our perceptions and misconceptions about race and ethnicity?
Derogatory references to minority ethnic groups eg. Negative associations with ‘black’; Choosing words such as primitive or Indian in reference to Aboriginals

7. Values
Values – collective ideas about what is right and wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture (eg. Equality, fairness, tolerance, dialogue, diversity, Canada’s natural beauty, Canada’s global image)
Values typically come in pairs of positive and negative (eg. brave vs cowardly; hardworking vs lazy)
Value contradictions
These are values that contradict with one another or are mutually exclusive
For example, 84% of Canadians feel that “people who are poor have a right to an adequate income to live on”, but many of them still show strong support for governments that cut budgets in order to reduce deficits

8. Values Ideal vs Real culture
Ideal culture refers to the values and standards of behaviour that people in a society profess to hold
Real culture refers to the values and standards of behaviour that people actually follow
(For example, we might think of ourselves as “good citizens”, but still drive above the speed limit or do engage in other illegal activities - however seemingly harmless.)

9. Norms
Norms – established rules of behaviour or standards of conduct (eg. pay taxes, don’t talk while you eat, say please and thank you, don’t drive and drive)
Formal vs informal norms
Formal norms are written down and involve specific punishments for violators (eg. Laws)
These may be enforced by sanctions, either positive (from simple praise to medals of honour) or negative (ranging from mild disapproval to life imprisonment)
Informal norms are unwritten standards of behaviour understood by people who share a common identity. When they are violated, other people may apply informal sanctions (eg. a frowning gesture, a public scolding, etc.)

10. Folkways
Folkways – informal norms or everyday customs that may be violated without serious consequences within a particular culture
These are rules of conduct that aren’t necessarily essential to a society’s survival. (eg. brush your teeth, don’t wear white after Labour Day, wear deodorant, etc.)

11. Mores
Mores – strongly held norms with moral or ethical connotations that may not be violated without serious consequences in a particular culture
These are based on culture values, so they are considered crucial to a society’s well-being
Taboos
Taboos are mores so strong that their violation is considered to be extremely offensive and even unmentionable. (eg. Incest)

12. Laws
Laws – formal, standardized norms that have been enacted by legislatures and are enforced by formal sanctions
Civil law vs criminal law
Civil law deals with disputes among persons or groups. Usually involves compensation or fines as restitution.
(eg. minor traffic accident)
Criminal law deals with public safety and well-being. Usually involves major fines or prison sentences as restitution.
(eg. murder)
Changes in law often reflect changes in culture.
(eg. Racial or religious hate crimes, more liberal definition of marriage