1. Pathology of endocrine pancreas
By: Shifaa’ Alqa’qa’

2. major cell types:
Beta insulin
Alpha glucagon
Delta somatostatin
PP (pancreatic polypeptide) cells VIP

3. DIABETES MELLITUS Normal blood glucose levels ???? DM diagnosis:
1. A random blood glucose concentration of 200 mg/dL or higher, with classical signs and symptoms
2. A fasting glucose concentration of 126 mg/dL or higher on more than one occasion
3. An abnormal oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), in which the glucose concentration is 200 mg/dL or higher 2 hours after a standard carbohydrate load (75 g of glucose).

4. HbA1C ?????????

5. Prediabetes :
impaired glucose tolerance
serum fasting glucose greater than 110 but less than 126 mg/dL
OGTT values of greater than 140 but less than
200 mg/dL
Risk for DM and cardiovascular disease

6. Classification:
- Type 1 diabetes (T1D) %
- Type 2 diabetes (T2D) % to 90%
- monogenic and secondary causes

11. PATHOGENESIS Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus:
- autoimmune disease failure of self tolerance in T cells, autoantibodies
Childhood puberty more than 90% of the beta cells have been destroyed
Insulitis early

12. genetic susceptibility ----
HLA-DR3, or DR4 class II MHC (ch6)
CTLA4 and PTPN22 genes (excessive T cell activation)
environmental factors
Infections viruses (mumps, rubella, and coxsackie B (molecular mimicry)

13. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus:
complex multifactorial disease
- Genetic factors: Diabetogenic genes
- Environmental factors: sedentary life style, dietary habits
insulin resistance
beta cell hyperfunction and hyperinsulinemia in the early stages
beta cell dysfunction

15. Insulin Resistance:
failure of target tissues to respond normally to insulin
- decreased uptake of glucose in muscle,
- reduced glycolysis and fatty acid oxidation in the liver,
- an inability to suppress hepatic gluconeogenesis

16. Obesity and Insulin Resistance:
metabolic syndrome ---- DM 2
- excess free fatty acids (FFAs)----Intracellular triglycerides (muscle, liver)
- FFA Inflammation ---- inflammasome proinflammatory cytokines ---- IL-1β ---- macrophages and other cells, adipokines (fat cells)

17. Beta Cell Dysfunction:
- FFAs
- pro-inflammatory cytokines from beta cells
- recruitment of mononuclear cells (macrophages and T cells) into the islets
cytokine production
Amyloid replacement of islets ---- islet amyloid polypetide (IAPP)

18. Monogenic Forms of Diabetes
monogenic forms of diabetes are uncommon examples of the diabetic phenotype occurring as a result of loss-of-function mutations within a single gene.
maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY)

20. Complications of Diabetes
The pathogenesis of the long-term complications of diabetes:
1. Formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs):
AGEs ---hyperglycemia---- glucose-derived precursors- amino groups of proteins.
AGE-RAGE (receptor of AGE on inflammatory cells,endothelium, vascular smooth muscle )---- pro-inflammatory cytokines---- reactive oxygen species---- procoagulant activity-- proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells and synthesis of extracellular matrix
AGEs can directly cross-link extracellular matrix proteins----
enhancing protein deposition-----trap other
plasma or interstitial proteins---- (LDL) accelerating atherosclerosis (albumin) basement membrane thickening

21. Activation of protein kinase C:
Intracellular hyperglycemia-----stimulate the de novo synthesis of DAG (diacylglycerol) ----activation of PKC---- production of proangiogenic
molecules (VEGF) neovascularization

22. Disturbances in polyol pathways:
Hyperglycemia----- increase in intracellular glucose (nerves, lens, kidneys, blood vessels)----- aldose reductase----- sorbitol (polyol) NADPH fructose ---- reduction in GSH (antioxidant) oxidative stress diabetic neuropathy

23. complications appear approximately 15 to 20 years after the onset of hyperglycemia

24. macrovascular disease
Basement membranes of small vessels (microangiopathy),
Kidneys (diabetic nephropathy),
retina (retinopathy),
Nerves (neuropathy)

25. Pancreas:
- Reduction in the number and size of islets
- Leukocytic infiltration of the islets---- More in Type1
- Amyloid replacement of islets in long-standing
type 2 diabetes
- An increase in the number and size of islets ????

26. Diabetic Macrovascular Disease:
accelerated atherosclerosis
Myocardial infarction
Gangrene of the lower extremities
Hyaline arteriolosclerosis ????

27. Diabetic Microangiopathy:
diffuse thickening of basement membranes
leaky
Diabetic nephropathy,
Retinopathy
neuropathy

28. Diabetic Nephropathy:
glomerular lesions (thick BM)----
Diffuse mesangial sclerosis---- Nodular glomerulosclerosis nephrotic syndrome
(2) renal vascular lesions ---- Renal atherosclerosis and arteriolosclerosis---- macrovascular disease
(3) pyelonephritis, including necrotizing papillitis
(4) end-stage renal disease

29. Ocular Complications of Diabetes:
Nonproliferative retinopathy (microangiopathy: hemorrhages, retinal exudates, microaneurysms, venous dilations, edema)
- proliferative retinopathy (neovascularization--- Vitreous hemorrhages---organization----retinal detachment----blindness )
- Cataract formation,
- glaucoma

30. Diabetic Neuropathy (microangiopathy) :
peripheral, symmetric neuropathy of the lower extremities affecting both motor and sensory function
autonomic neuropathy
diabetic mononeuropathy (footdrop or wristdrop)

31. Clinical Features:
type 1 diabetes: honeymoon period???? Infection ---- abrupt polyuria (glycosuria) , polydipsia, polyphagia, and in severe cases, ketoacidosis (500 to 700 mg/dL, dehydration, lipase--- FFAs---oxidized by the liver to produce ketones---- metabolic acidosis ---- nausea, vomiting, respiratory difficulties weight loss and muscle weakness

32. Type 2 diabetes mellitus:
older than 40 years and frequently are obese
osmotic diuresis---- dehydration---- hyperosmolar nonketotic coma-----delays recognition of the seriousness of the situation until the onset of severe dehydration and coma.

33. Diabetic patients are plagued by an enhanced susceptibility to infections of the skin, as well as to tuberculosis, pneumonia, and pyelonephritis

36. PANCREATIC NEUROENDOCRINE TUMORS
islet cell tumors
Nonfunctional,
Functional
malignant
benign

37. Insulinomas---- Mc
attacks of hypoglycemia, below 50 mg/dL ( central nervous system manifestations as confusion, stupor, and loss of consciousness). They are precipitated by fasting or exercise and are promptly relieved by feeding or parenteral administration of glucose

38. Gastrinomas:
Zollinger-Ellison syndrome????
peptic ulceration
diarrhea